fn^)n?ic^|on of tho 



\-»rGG»nG 



ViPq 




Class LB^SO^ 
Book. -G-T 



GopightN?- 



cflEmiGur oEFosm 



SUPERVISION OF THE 
SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



SUPERVISION OF THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



WITH 



Special Application to the Supervision of 
Manual and Industrial Arts 



A TEXT FOR USE IN COLLEGE AND NORMAL 
TEACHER-TRAINING CLASSES 



L. S. GREENE, M. S. 

State Supervisor of Industrial Education, Florida 

Professor of Industrial Education, University of Florida 

Author of ''School Shop Installation 

and Maintenance" 



BKUCE - M 1 LWAU KEE 



THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 






Copyright, 1922 

L. S. GREENE. 

Printed in United States 

OF America 



FEB 26 "23 



PREFACE 

THE purpose of this book is to give those 
interested in becoming fitted for the super- 
vision of the special subjects, a survey of the 
duties and responsibihties they will popularly be 
expected to assume when they accept such a 
position. 

In addition to showing what a supervisory 
position demands of an incumbent, the aim has 
been to give such light on methods, ways and 
means as will be of real help in fitting a super- 
visor to satisfactorily discharge his duties. These 
duties are many and varied and the exactions are 
severe but the goal is set by popular pubhc 
opinion and by the expressions of accepted teach- 
ers in education, and the ideals are to be striven 
for even if all cannot be attained. 

Different supervisors direct the teaching of 
different kinds of subject matter under various 
conditions and naturally their problems differ. 
These notes make no attempt to supply a panacea 
for all supervisory troubles, nor can any notes 
give the exact methods or definite and detailed 
solutions for all problems to be met with under 
varying circumstances. It is hoped, however, 
that such definite principles are indicated and 
methods suggested as will enligliten tlic young, 
or prospective supervisor concerning the funda- 
mental reasons for tlie existence of the supervisory 



position, and will aid and encourage him to work 
for a better organization, more satisfactory rela- 
tions with his associates, and more efficient and 
purposeful instruction. 

The author trusts that the observation of the 
weaknesses of this book, together with the realiz- 
ation of the need of good treatises upon the same 
subject, will cause others to work up compilations 
that will aid in improving the training of the super- 
visors of special subjects. 

The author is under obhgations to Professors 
Henmon and O'Shea of the University of Wis- 
consin, who w^ere kind enough to read the 
notes and make suggestions, and to Mr. Paul 
Graven, supervisor of manual arts, Madison, Wis., 
whose help was enlisted on several occasions. 

L. b. (jr. 

University of Wisconsin, 1921. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 
PART I— GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FIELD OF 
SPECIAL SUBJECTS SUPERVISION: 

1. Terminology, 8 

2. Supervision vs. Inspection Only, 10 

3. Basic Reasons for Supervision of the Special 

Subjects, 10-16 

4 . The Supervisor's Duties — The Supervisor as an 

Organizer, The Supervisor as an Executive, 

The Professional Relations of the Supervisor, 16-25 

5. The Supervisor's Place in the School System 

Charted 25-27 

PART II— THE EXECUTIVE DUTIES OF THE 
SUPERVISOR: 

1. Directing Teaching — Conferences with Teachers, 

Courses of Study, Lesson Plans, Getting 
Correlations, Demonstration Teaching, Ob- 
servation and Inspection, Observation by 
Teachers, . 29-56 

2. Marks and Tests of Pupil Attainments — Need 
'^ for and Purpose of Standard Tests, Individual 

Differences and Distribution of Marks, Some 
Investigations of Distribution of Marks, The 
Supervisor in Relation to Marks and Tests, 
Guiding the Distribution of Marks, Stand- 
ardizing Measurements of Pupil Attainments, 
Supervisory Uses of Tests, Precautions Neces- 
sary in Giving Standard Tests, 56-80 

3. Teachers' Records, 80-86 

4. Purchasing and Distribution, 86-90 

5. Rating Teachers, 100-103 

6. Promoting Public Interest in the Department, 103-6 

7. Judging the Efficiency of One's Own Supervision, 106-8 

8. The Supervisor and Vocational Guidance, . . . 108-11 



Page 

PART III— THE SUPERVISOR'S DUTIES OF OR- 
GANIZATION: 

1 . Organizing an Extended Course of Study — Aids 

in Formulating a> Course of Study, Trade 
Analysis and the Course of Study, .... 113-120 

2. Own Working Program, 120-124 

3. Department Records, 124-131 

4. New Courses and Installations, 131-138 

5. Budgets— The Hypothetical Method, The Sta- 

tistical Method, The Method of Calculation 
from Experience, Estimating the Cost of 
Equipment, 138-150 

PART IV— THE PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS OF 
THE SUPERVISOR: 

1. To Others in the System— The Child, Super- 

intendent, Building Principal, Special Teach- 
ers, Grade Teachers, Other Supervisors, . . 151-158 

2. To Others Not in the System — Community, Edu- 

cational Meetings, 158 

3. To Himself — Professional Growth, Leadership, 

Executive Ability, 158-161 



PART I 

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FIELD OF 
SPECIAL SUBJECTS SUPERVISION 



Introduction 

Were one, visiting in Madison for the first time, 
to mount late in the afternoon of a summer's day 
an elevation on the northwest side of the city, he 
might be surprised to see before him the broad 
expanse of a beautiful little lake, Lake Mendota. 
Perhaps the first glance would give him only an 
impression of the beauty of the view taken as a 
whole, but soon he would observe more in detail 
the different elements of the setting, the slight 
ripple on the blue water, a sail boat being slowly 
wafted along by the gentle breeze, a lonely gull 
listlessly supporting himself on outstretched wings 
in sharp contrast against the bluish shores on the 
far side of the lake. But more noticeable perhaps 
than all these would be the gorgeous path of the 
slowly setting sun across the water. 

This little sketch suggests a picture that is 
somewhat analogous to the arrangement given to 
the subject matter of the following pages. At first, 
in the sketch, the visitor had a sweeping vision of 
a group of elements combining to make a complete 
setting, but soon he singled out and noticed more 



8 Supervision of the 

in detail, the individual large elements that to- 
gether made the whole. The aim in Part I of this 
book, is to present to the reader a general view 
of the activities in the supervision of the special 
subjects. These activities are divided and classed 
under large headings so that the reader may get 
a glimpse of what ^^The Supervision of the Special 
Subjects'' consists of. An early appreciation of 
the ^togetherness" of the various activities will 
make it easier for him to understand and get help 
from the detailed discussions that follow\ The 
remaining three parts are discussions in detail 
of the three different phases of the supervisory 
office. 
Terminology 

It is essential that in the reading of these notes 
and w^here there are varying conceptions of the 
meaning of certain terms, the reader understand 
the meanings as used by the writer. 

The terms Administrative Duties and Execu- 
tive Duties are often thought of as being synony- 
mous, but at a meeting of a committee of the Na- 
tional Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education, distinctions were made and will be 
adhered to in this discussion. 

The committee held that administrative duties 
were those of a state board of education, or of a 
local board, and had to do with ^^ rules and regu- 
lations concerning such matters as expenditures 



special Subjects 9 

of moneys, courses of study, employment of 
teachers, etc/', while executive duties are thought 
of as being those discharged by superintendents 
of schools, supervisors, directors of industrial 
schools, principals, etc., in carrying out decisions 
of the controlling board. These distinctions would 
indicate that, in part at least, the duties of a 
supervisor are executive y but not administrative. 

The Supervisor of Special Subjects in a school 
system is that individual who directs the teaching 
of one or more special subjects in all grades in 
which such subjects are taught in a group of 
schools. 

By Special Subjects are meant such subjects 
as music, drawing, manual arts, etc. When a 
school system is large enough to require the serv- 
ices of a special-subjects supervisor, the duties of 
this position will permit very little, if any time, 
for the regular teaching of the special subjects by 
the supervisor. Those who assist him and regu- 
larly teach these subjects, are called the Special 
Teachers or Special Subject Teachers. The super- 
visor may be further assisted in the teaching of the 
special subjects, during a comparatively few num- 
ber of periods each week, by the regular Grade 
Teachers, who accept responsibility for teaching 
the special subject as they accept responsibility 
for teaching arithmetic and reading to their pupils. 



10 Supervision of the 

Supervision vs. Inspection 

Too often does the untrained or ^^ would-be '^ 
supervisor consider the task of supervision to be 
mainly that of inspection. Inspection has as its 
aim an impersonal and objective measurement of 
the results of teaching to determine the efficiency 
of the teaching done and in order that a basis may 
be established for personal and constructive serv- 
ice to the teacher. Inspection alone would be of 
little lasting value to the teacher. Simply knock- 
ing the props from under people to show them 
where they are weak will not necessarily result in 
making them competent to stand alone. Inspec- 
tion to locate defects and causes of defects in 
teaching, must always be accompanied by a 
friendly attitude, constructive help, practical de- 
monstrations and encouragement. Inspection is 
supervision only in so far as it is an index to de- 
termine where there may be need for help that 
will improve the instruction given by the teacher. 

Basic Reasons for Supervision of the 
Special Subjects 

A logical discussion of the supervisory process 
in connection with the special subjects, necessi- 
tates an understanding of the need of, and the 
reasons for, supervision. The reason for super- 
vision should determine or define the aims of 
supervision. In turn, the methods and means of 



special Subjects 11 

supervision will take such form as will satisfy its 
aims. 

The reasons for supervision can be stated 
briefly as follows: 

1. Continuation of teacher-training — To raise 
the standard of instruction by providing for training 
^^ on the job ^' of an ever-changing body of teachers. 

2. Direction and inspection of teaching — To ob- 
tain efficiency of instruction in the special subjects 
by placing responsibility for the quality of in- 
struction upon competent heads. 

3. Systematic organization — To obtain pro- 
gresS; and to unify and correlate the work of in- 
struction in the special subjects. 

4. To supply a connecting link between the busy 
superintendent and many teachers — By helping 
establish a closer contact between the superin- 
tendent and the teachers, than the superintendent 
alone is able to obtain, 

5. To enhance economy and efficiency of dis- 
bursements — To centralize authority for expend- 
itures, and to provide good management in the 
purchase of equipment and supplies for the use of 
students in the special subjects classes. 

Reason One — The personnel of teaching forces 
constantly shifts and changes with the years. New 
teachers, with little or no practical experience 
other than that of the training school, enter the 



12 Supervision of the 

systems. The shortage of teachers for the voca- 
tional subjects has, in some instances, necessitated 
the recruiting from the trades of men with no ex- 
perience at teaching, but who in other respects 
are quahfied to make good teachers. Teachers 
come to one system from another, and are new to 
the pohcy, methods and other conditions existing 
in this situation. Again, teachers may be trans- 
ferred within the same system and faced with the 
necessity of deahng with a different kind of sub- 
ject matter and method. 

This constant change in a teaching force means 
that there are always present within a system, 
teachers who for one reason or another, are not so 
well trained for the teaching of their particular 
subject or subjects as our generally accepted stand- 
ards of efficiency in teaching require. It is obvious 
that, so long as this shifting of the personnel takes 
place and cannot be avoided, and so long as the 
standards are not to be lowered, there must be a 
certain amount of teacher training done ^^on the 
job'^ after the teacher starts drawing his regular 
salary. 

Furthermore, the very nature of many of the 
special subjects, the technical knowledge and skill 
required, etc., are such as to demand the guidance 
of one thoroughly competent to aid, encourage 
and instruct the teacher in the art of successfully 
handling this type of subject matter. 



special Subjects 13 

Reason Two — In order that instruction in the 
special subjects may be efficient, it is necessary 
that responsibility for the quality of this instruc- 
tion be vested somewhere. If the responsibility 
for the effectiveness of teaching is left with each 
teacher, satisfactory results will not be obtained 
for teachers differ in professional training, skill, 
initiative and other qualifications with the result 
that varying opinions are held as to what good 
teaching is. Because of this fact it is better to 
have some one person responsible for the quality 
and nature of the instruction given in certain sub- 
jects, one who realizes that this is an important 
duty, one who, because of training and experience, 
has a broader conception of proper standards of 
attainment and is competent to see the weakness 
of a teacher as such and lend the proper aid and 
encouragement. 

Reason Three — Where teachers are responsible 
for one or more special subjects or are responsible 
for certain special subjects in a limited number of 
grades or years, rarely do they, as a result of their 
own initiative, so correlate and unify their work 
with each other as to make the progress of the 
pupil, through the various stages of knowledge 
of the special subjects, as comprehensive and 
expeditious as it should be. They do not take as 
much advantage, in teaching their own classes, of 
the experiences of the pupils in classes and subject 



14 Supervision of the 

matter closely related to their own as they might. 
Consider the correlation that should exist between 
mechanical drawing and metal and wood-working, 
whether all are taught by the same teacher or each 
subject has a separate teacher. Neither is it true 
that teachers of a special subject in one grade or 
year, famiharize themselves sufficiently with the 
exact ground covered, or the plan and method of 
development used by teachers of this same sub- 
ject in grades through which the pupils have 
passed. 

In these respects, there is need for supervision 
to determine just what subject matter should be 
covered in each grade and year in order that there 
be no unnecessary repetition of work, that no im- 
portant phases of the work be left out, and that 
there be such a unity of purpose and correlation 
of subject matter as will result in a steady and 
orderly progress of the pupils from year to year, 
from grade to grade, and from subject to subject. 

Reason Four — The duties of a school super- 
intendent are many. Among them is the duty of 
formulating and putting into effect a policy con- 
sistent with that of the state and local school 
boards. He must also know of the ability of his 
teachers to instruct those who are strong, those 
who are weak, and those who are discontented, 
etc. To perform these duties alone in a medium 
size or large city system would require consider- 



special Subjects 15 

ably more time than his other duties, if properly 
performed, would allow, for he would need to be 
on intimate terms with the work of each teacher 
before he could competently pass upon such 
points. Thus it is evident that the superintendent 
needs the help of a competent supervisor, or 
supervisors, of the special subjects, who, because 
of their constant contact with teachers with whom 
they work, are able to inform the superintendent 
knowingly concerning the work of the special 
subjects teachers. 

Reason Five — One of the problems in the estab- 
lishment and maintenance of special subjects is 
the high cost of such instruction, due to the neces- 
sary expenditures for equipment and supplies. 
This is a very important reason why supervision 
of the special subjects is necessary. There must 
be someone responsible for the planning, purchas- 
ing and distribution of equipment and supplies. 
There are many choices and selections to be made 
in which money figures almost constantly and in 
which experience and a knowledge of the suitable- 
ness of articles are essential. The responsibility 
cannot be satisfactorily left with each teacher and 
the superintendent alone is seldom competent to 
properly choose equipment and supplies. The 
supervisor assisted by the counsel and advice of 
the superintendent and members of the commun- 
ity, who, because of their business relations, are 



16 



Supervision of the 



competent to advise, is the person particularly 
fitted for this responsibility and upon him it 
should rest. 



THE SUPERVISOR 



as an 




Fig. 1. 

The Supervisor's Duties 

The duties of a supervisor of special subjects, 
considered in a large way, may be thought of as 
coming under two heads (1) Duties of Organiza- 
tion, and (2) Executive Duties. In the discharge 
of these duties, however, the supervisor will find 
that he has many relations and contacts with 
other individuals of the school system which 
should govern his actions to a large degree. These 
relations and contacts seem to be such an import- 
ant factor in a discussion of the work of the super- 
visor that they will be grouped for treatment under 
a third head, or division, and called Professional 
Relations, In the chart. Fig. I, is shown a graph- 
ical representation of the main divisions of the 
supervisor's job and of the relations between them. 



special Subjects 17 

The Supervisor as an Organizer 

As the supervisor is the head of a certain 
branch of the work of a city school system, it is 
evident that upon him will fall the task and privi- 
lege of much of the organization for his depart- 
ment. Not onl}^ is he expected to be the man best 
fitted for this work, but also is he the man re- 
sponsible for the proper working of the department. 
For that reason he necessarily is and should be the 
most interested in its organization. 

In Fig. 2 is a general graphical survey of the 
supervisor's duties of organization. No attempt 
has been made, in this and the other two charts 
representing graphically the main divisions of the 
supervisor's job; to show any difference in im- 
portance between the several types of duties. 
The main purpose is to present to the reader an 
analytical view, or picture, of the field. 

The supervisor, working under the guidance of 
the superintendent, and with the help of the teach- 
ers, is responsible for the courses of study. He is 
the subject-matter expert, the one who should 
know best the correlations that should exist be- 
tween the various subjects in his department and 
between his department and other departments, 
the one who should know how his department can 
best be of service in providing for the needs of the 
community, etc. 



18 



Supervision of the 



2 


O 


P^ 


M 


^JN 


e^t-; 


n^ 


P,< 




wo 


a 


\ 


tu 


Eco 


Hnj 


H 


;d 


« 



^ o 






a 






i 

6 



S5 



a 


5^*t: 




iH2 


^^ 


CU V4 


a«r> 


Da 


cow 


1 






CO 
















?0 


E- 




cO 








j-» 




^ 


5!^ 








2 

::4 




2 

1 




^ 

p 


(Q 




< 




S 




13 

o 




i 






o5 
1 




T" 




■ I 





















£ 
^ 




85 



:2; 



CO 
H 



SpeciallSuhjects 19 

He must keep certain records in his depart- 
ment, and will wish to keep certain others. His 
policy should be -to so organize his records that he 
will be able to furnish his superiors with such data 
as they may require, and so that personally he 
will be provided with such information as will be 
of use to him in furthering the value of his depart- 
ment, all with the least time, effort and confusion. 

If the supervisor does not carefully plan his 
own program or schedule of work, he may expect 
to find himself apparently swamped with work. 
He must think his field of work over carefully, see 
what his most important duties are, which require 
the most time and how much time will be given 
to each. Unless he does this and makes out a 
schedule of work, he wdll not be likely to utilize 
his time and effort to the best advantage. 

Budgets are necessary for the business-like 
conduct of a department, both from the point of 
view of those responsible for the control of the 
finances of the school system and from that of 
the supervisor who wishes to have some basis for 
planning his expenditures. 

The supervisor should foresee the need of new 
courses, changes and additions to equipment and 
housing facilities. He will be expected and should 
wish to interest himself in keeping his department 
modern and up-to-date, both from the point of 
view of the physical conditions of rooms and 



20 



Supervision of the 



< p 

^5 



<o Z 


5 2 


<n 


o'^^ 


S ^ 






Q 2; p 


^ l^^ 


■^^z 




fUO 



CO 
pUcO 

pen 
I— < 

;^ 



V CO 




en 




CO 




i 






9 i^ 




1 




h 




o 




cn 


H H 






E 




is 




< 


8S 




i 




I 

S 


U-- '-r-' 


CO 

> 




(XP 


^ 























CO 


















to 


1 




C3 




§i 


o 




Sp 




P::' 


2: 










H 




5: pi 




^)0 


;^ 




n~^ 


' 1 ' 











'^ 




g 


2 


e) 


9 


z 


H 


CO 


:d 


^ 




VJ 


H 




cn 




K-« 


p. P 1 



QF 



jMfiJ 





,o 


2! 


i^tn 


12 


(oy 


^ < 


jntij 


OH 





special Subjects 21 

equipment, as well as from that of the courses 

offered. 

The Supervisor as an Executive 

While the duties of organization and the exe- 
cutive duties are closely allied and in a sense 
overlap, the duties mentioned above may be quite 
clearly thought of as organizing duties. In Fig. 3 
are charted the executive duties. 

The supervisor will have teachers, who, be- 
cause of inadequate preparation or lack of experi- 
ence or other weaknesses, need to be shown how 
to teach and to know what good teaching is. The 
supervisor will wish to handle the class for a 
teacher at times to give the teacher an opportunity 
of observing good teaching. This is called demon- 
stration teaching. The supervisor, also, will wish 
to make it possible for teachers to visit each other 
and gain what they can from watching another 
person do similar work. It may even be possible 
for them to visit neighboring communities to see 
the teachers at work there. This is listed in the 
chart as observation by teachers. The supervisor 
must help the teachers, by directing their observa- 
tion, showing them how to analyze a situation, 
what to look for and how to judge it. 

The supervisor will wish to call and direct 
meetings of departmental teachers. Such meet- 
ings are to be held for a real purpose and for ac- 
complishing it and not simply because such meetings 



11 



Supervision of the 



O 
2 
O 

$^ 
z o 

O o) 

o 



2 


















^ 

o 














1 






^^ 




^.^ 














^ 




2 














^ 




§ 














H 




^ 














£ 




1 




K 
^ 




<n 






04 




1 




X 








o 
5 


H 
O 




"r 


Hr 


T 











































J 1 1 1 L 


h 




t 












* 






^ 

o 












n 










2: 















Di 






r: 








lU 




1 




i 




< 
^ 




Mi 



X 








H 




g 




2 
^ 











V. 








2 




U 

2 




^ 




^ 




S 


CO 
>- 










g 




i 




|H 




^ 







Q 




2 

n 




e> 




p! 




^ 




lU 


2 

»— • 

CO 




X 






CO 




-) 

^ 




X 




«0 




P 






w 


V 


V 


V 


V 




T- 
































special Subjects 23 

are customary. They are to be held because 
there are problems that need discussion, matters 
that need explaining, or as a means for training 
the teachers. 

In directing teaching, the supervisor must 
inspect the work of the teachers, the manner in 
which they conduct their classes and keep their 
rooms in shape, the results of their teaching 
shown by the ability of the students as a result 
of instruction. As a consequence of this inspec- 
tion, he can determine how he can direct the 
teaching to better advantage, whether through 
help in planning the lessons, through constructive 
criticism of methods, etc. 

The superintendent cannot be as intimately 
familiar with the work and ability of the special 
teachers as is the supervisor, and the latter will 
be called upon to estimate the value and short- 
comings of his teachers and recommend increases 
in salaries, transfers or even dismissals. 

In estimating the accomplishments of his de- 
partment as a whole, the supervisor must look 
for and take cognizance of his own shortcomings 
for the purpose of bettering the supervision he 
gives. 

Another duty of the supervisor is that of pur- 
chasing supplies and seeing that they are distrib- 
uted to the teachers in the right amounts and at 
the right time. 



24 



Fig. 5. 



Supervision of the 



DOARD (f ErDUCATlON 








GTY SUPERINTENDENT of SCHOOLS | 










SPECIAL SUBJECTS 
SUPERVISORS 


PRinc 


r-pA T o 










*■" — — -^ 


REGULAR TEACHERS 


SPECIAL TEACHERS 




_______—- — 


-^ " 


PUPILS 



BOARD 0/ EDUCATION 



CITY SUPERINTENDENT SCHOOLS 



Fig. 6. 



PRINCIPALS 



REGULAR TEACHERS 



PUPILS 



ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT 
PRIMARY ani GRADE W0I2K 




SPECIAL SUBJECTS 
SUPERVI302S 



TEACHERS 
in SPEC I Ak. 
SUBJECTS 



TEACHERS 
in SPECIAl^ 
TYPE SCHOOL 
I 



BOARD of EDUCATION 



I CITY SUPERINTENDENT SCHOOLS] 



ASSISTANT 3Uff:KlNTENDENT 



Fig. 7. 



PRINCIPALS 



REGULAR TEACHERS 



EFFICIENCY EXPERT 



SPECIAL SUBJECT 
SUPERVISORS 



TEACHERS 
5ITOAL-mJECT5 



TEACHERS in 

SPECIAL 
TYPE SCHOOLS 



PUPILS 



special Subjects 25 

The Professional Relations of 
THE Supervisor 

In the discharge of his duties, the supervisor 
will work in connection with many individuals 
and in certain relations to them. To some he is 
a sub-ordinate and an assistant. To others he is 
a superior and in another sense an assistant, 
guiding and counseling, encouraging and criti- 
cizing. The supervisor must know what his 
relations are professionally. He must be a student 
of human nature, and he must use his knowledge 
of these factors as a guide in the discharge of his 
duties. In Fig. 4 is a graphical illustration of how 
the supervisor has professional relations with 
various individuals. 

The Supervisor's Place in the School 
System Charted 

The charts shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7, represent 
graphically the place of the special subjects super- 
visors in school systems differing in size. In each 
case the board of education is the educational 
head of the system, but the superintendent is 
shown as the executive of this board and the 
nominal head of the system. 

In Fig. 5 the special supervisors are repre- 
sented as directly responsible to the superin- 
tendent and to no-one else, or in another sense 
they are subordinate to him only. This is due to 
the fact that the system represented is a compar- 



26 Supervision of the 

atively small one. The chart further shows that 
the regular and special teachers are responsible 
to the superintendent in part through the special 
subject supervisors, (or that the supervisors are 
in charge of certain activities of these teachers). 
This responsibility is in connection with the special 
subjects only. ' Their remaining responsibility is 
through their principals. 

The connections between the supervisors and 
the principals are represented in a different way. 
Neither is subordinated to the other, but both 
should be mutually interested in the work in 
charge of the supervisors, and they must co- 
operate. Though the supervisor is responsible for 
the teaching of the special subject, the principal 
is the one to settle matters of discipline, passing 
of students between rooms, etc. 

Fig. 6 charts the organization of a larger sys- 
tem in which the superintendent is assisted bj^ an 
officer responsible for primary and grade work and 
called an assistant superintendent for that work. 
In this case the supervisor is represented as con- 
nected direct with the superintendent as in Fig. 
5, and is responsible to him for all of his educa- 
tional activities, but a further line connecting him 
with the assistant superintendent shows that that 
individual must be cooperated with in connection 
with the special subjects in the grades. In this 
chart is shown an additional possible connection 



special Subjects 27 

between the supervisor and the teachers in special 
types of schools, such as day and evening voca- 
tional schools and classes. With these the super- 
visor may have some supervisory connection. 

Fig. 7 shows a chart for a large system where 
the school efficiency expert is included. The 
supervisor's connections with him are those that 
have to do with the measuring of the efficiency 
instruction and individual pupil accomplishments. 
All three of these charts show that the supervisor 
makes the connection between the superintendent, 
who is the executive of the board of education, 
and the teachers and pupils only in-so-far as the 
work in the special subjects is concerned. This 
does not minimize his position, for it is a respons- 
ible one and calls for the best efforts of the indi- 
vidual assuming this responsibility. 

Conclusion 

This brief survey of the field of special subjects 
supervision should orient the reader and give him 
a rather definite general mental picture of the 
supervisor's job. In the chapters to follow the 
same field will be discussed in detail. 



PART II. 

EXECUTIVE DUTIES OF THE 
SUPERVISOR 



Directing Teaching 

Conferences with Teachers — One of the several 
ways of directing teaching is through conferences 
with teachers. Conferences may be held with 
groups of teachers^ called teachers' meetings, or 
with individual teachers, depending upon the needs 
and advantages of the situation. 

The supervisor should use his best judgment 
in deahng with teachers' meetings. They should 
be held when there is good to be gained from them 
or when such gatherings are necessary to explain 
about the work to be done. But when they are 
held, it is essential that reasons are obvious to all 
and that the program be so well planned that 
when the teachers go from the meeting, they will 
realize the need for it and will feel that they have 
gained something of value from it. It is well that, 
before some meetings, the teachers know what the 
discussion is to be about, that they may devote 
some thought to it previous to going, thereby en- 
riching the program and enhancing its value to 
the group. 

The supervisor must not forget that other 
officers hold teachers' meetings and that he should 



30 Supervision of the 

confer with them to see that the demands made 
upon teachers to attend the various meetings are 
not too heavy and exacting. ^ This is a point 
especially to be remembered in connection with 
the regular teachers working under several super- 
visory officers. 

The meeting presents an opportunity for the 
supervisor to acquaint the teachers with the con- 
ditions in the department as he sees them and as 
a result of his observations and visits. He can call 
attention to conditions that are improving and 
can point out those that need correcting. He 
can make helpful suggestions and constructive 
criticisms. 

The teachers' meetings will present the best 
means in the beginning of the school year for pre- 
senting the courses of study and a survey of the 
work to be done during the following nine or ten 
months. The new phases of the work, together 
with the reasons for them, may be explained and 
new methods or a different organization may be a 
subject for discussion. 

Other meetings may be needed to plan ex- 
hibits for the promotion of the department, to 
report upon a state or national meeting attended 
by the supervisor, to discuss good methods and 
technique of teaching, to consider the progress 
and quality of the work in the department, 
to debate matters deahng with economies and 



special Subjects 31 

discipline, etc., all of which are of interest to all the 
teachers. Active participation of the teachers in 
the presentation of problems and their discussion 
should be encouraged and will be aided by an 
informal and free conduct of the meeting. 

Individual conferences with a teacher provide 
for an intimate and sympathetic professional 
understanding between the supervisor and the 
teacher — a situation in which the supervisor 
should lead the teacher to feel free to come to 
him for counsel and for help. 

The individual conference will provide the 
supervisor with the best opportunity to give the 
teacher constructive criticism as a result of his 
observations and visits. It is here that teachers 
should be able to get help for organizing their 
teaching material, for planning the development 
of their lessons and for solving other special 
problems. 

Courses of Study 

The primary reason for having instruction in 
any subject is to develop, through directed in- 
struction and contacts with life, those powers and 
abihties not properly acquired by the individual 
in his undirected contacts with life. 

The purpose of a course of study is to unify, 
regulate and make more efficient tlie work of in- 
struction. The course should consist of a care- 
fully organized and written plan or outline for 



31 Supervision of the 

guiding the teaching of a subject, part of a sub- 
ject, or group of closely related subjects. 

The supervisor deals with courses of study in 
three distinct forms — (1) the Extended, (2) the 
Unit, and (3) Teachers' Courses. An extended 
course of study, made by the supervisor and of 
use to him mainly, is an outline of the complete 
range of instruction in one subject or group of 
closely related subjects. These last two terms 
are given in this way for the reason that there is 
some confusion as to the use of the term ^^ sub- 
ject''. Machine-shop practice, for instance, might 
be thought of by some people as one of the metal 
working subjects, while other people think of it as a 
group of such closely related subjects as lathe work, 
milling machine work, shop mathematics, shop 
drawing, etc. An extended course of study, how- 
ever, is an outline of the total range of this work, 
whether it is considered as a subject or a group 
of subjects. Such an outline will generally include 
work which is carried on through a number of 
grades or school years, representing the develop- 
ment of the study from the simple elements 
through the more complicated to the most com- 
plex elements. 

Unless one teacher is to conduct the instruc- 
tion throughout the range of the study, the super- 
visor will have only one important reason for 
familiarizing his teachers with the content of the 



special Subjects 33 

extended course of study for their subject. This 
one reason is that each teacher may better under- 
stand the relation of the particular subject matter 
that he teaches to that taught by other teachers. 
It is important, for example, that a teacher of 
drawing in one grade should be familiar with the 
drawing instruction given to pupils in the preced- 
ing and following grades, that she may be more 
conscious of what her pupils have received and 
still need in the way of instruction. The super- 
visor will use the extended course of study as a 
basis for the preparation of the unit courses of 
study. In Fig. 8 is shown an example of an ex- 
tended course of study. 

In Fig. 8 the horizontal columns, like that for 
^^ First Year Vocationar^ represent unit courses 
in that the work in a subject or group of subjects, 
for a certain period of time and in a certain order, 
is given. Also the vertical columns, with the ex- 
ception of the second, are unit outhnes indicating 
the work in a single subject or part of a subject 
to be given during a certain period of time. The 
second column gives projects for use in making 
applications of the processes. 

A unit course of study is an outHne of the work 
in a subject or part of a subject to be undertaken 
during a certain period of time. It is made up by 
the supervisor from his extended course and is 
given to the teacher as a basis for the construction 



34 




^MACHINE SB 


PROCESS 


PROJECT 


DRAWING 


Prcvocational 

Learning to use hammer, 

chisel and file correctly. 
Plain chipping and filing. 
Laying off cast iron blocks. 
Chipping and filing to lines. 


Rough cast iron blocks. 
Cast iron paper weights. 
Cast iron bill file. 
Marking work with class let- 
ter and pupil's number. 


Freehand sketches. 1 
Showing proper views. ■ 
Drawing instruments. 
Problems involving geometric 

forms. 1 
Few drawings executed ifl 

ink. 1 


First Year Yocationai 

Lathe and drill press. 
Laying off and centering 

stock for lathe work. ^ 
Rough turning and facing. 
Turning to size according to 

blue print. 
Chamfering, shouldering, 

necking, filleting. 
Changing gears for thread 

cutting. 
Grinding. 


Plain cylindrical work. 

Step gauge. 

Link pin. 

Bearing caps. 

Chipping blocks. 

Centers. 

Productive work on work 

benches for equipping new 

shops. 
C. I. Pedestals for drafting 

tables. 
Cutters. 


Shop sketches basis of mech- 
anical drawing. 
Typical machine parts. 
Screw threads and formulae. 


Second Year Yoeational 

Drilling, boring and reaming 
on lathe, turning to fit ring 
gauge, knurling. 

Setting up machine to cut 
threads of different pitch 
by quick change system. 

Shaper. 

Shaping blocks square, and 
at different angles. 

Planer. 

Planing straight and flat sur- 
faces by using chuck. 

Tempering tools. 


Straight plug gauge with 
knurled handle. 

Standard thread plug gauge 
with knurled handle. 

Straight ring gauges (knurled) 

Standard thread ring gauge. 

Planer jack. 

Shaping blocks to be par- 
tially chipped and filed. 

Parallel strips. 

Face plates, etc. 

Shaper bed. 

Shaper slide. 

Contract work. 

Automobile repairs. Axles. 

Nipple chucks. 


Tracing. 
Blue printing. 

Operating blue printing ma- 
chine. 
Shop sketching. 
Tool design. 
Screw threads. 


Third Year Yoeational 

Turning, drilling boring, 
reaming, inside threading, 
straight and taper inside 
and outside taper turning. 

Right and left threading. 

Milling commercial shapes. 

Double thread cutting. 

Squiire threads. Milling gears. 

Shaping small keyways. 

T slots.' 

Chuck twork, using parallel 
strips. 

Finger and toe clamping. 

Angle plate clamping. 

Side and angular planing. 


Taper .ring gauges. 
Pipe flanges. 
Flange couplings. 
Gears for replacement. 
Pulleys for school equipment. 
Parts for lathe. Cone pulleys. 
All parts for new lathes. 
All parts for new shaper. 
V block and angle plates. 
Plane lathe bed; tail stock; 

head stock. 
Cutting keyways in gears and 

pulleys on vertical shaper. 
Turning taper shanks on air 

chisels (contract work). 
Planing shaper bases. 


Gearing. 

Machine details. 

Assembly of machines con- 
structed in shop. 

Shop layouts. 

Development of freehand 
ability stressed. 



*Taken from the bulletin "Industrial Education in the Altoona (Pa.) Schools" — Whitney 

Fig. 8. 



OP PRACTICE 




55 


MATHEMATICS 


TRADE KNOWLEDGE 
AND THEORY 


SCIENCE 




Measuring systems. Tools. 






Bevel protractors. 


Text course in general 




Gauges. 


science. 


Fundamental processes. 


Belts and lacing materials. 


Properties and make-up of 


Fractions. 


Cast, malleable and rolled 


matter. 


Decimals. 


stock. 


Observations on heat and 


Decimal equivalents. 


Wrought pipe. 


work. 


Factoring. ^ 


Tubing. 


Electricity and magnetism 


Problems involving algebra 


Scraping. 


observed in common use. 


and geometry last half of 


Frosting. 


Abrasives. 


year. 


Organization of tool room. 


Story of carborundum. 




Safety first. 


Conservation. 




Trade hygiene. 






Machine calculations. 






Centering. 




Text book work in Dooley's 


Compound rest. 




Vocational Mathematics. 


Abrasives. 




Metric system. 


Change gears. 




Graphs. 


Details of setting lathe for 




Use of formulas. 


its various uses. 




Figuring gear changes. 


Mandrels. 


No formal class room science. 


Problems involving depth of 


Shop records. 




threads. 


Organization of industrial 




Estimating. 


plants. 
Shaper and planer tools. 




Velocity ratios of pulleys — 




figuring diameters. 


Gauge making. 
Lapping. 
Reamer. Taps. 






A foundation in chemistry 


Simple mechanical devices. 




as applied to the trade. 


Units for computations. 


Problems incidental to the 


Time cards. 


Gases. 


job. 


Comparative study of shops. 


Liquids. 


No definite time devoted to 


Catalogs. 


Solids. 


it in schedule. 


Employer's liability law. 


Heat. 


Slide rule. 


Apprentice systems. 


Electricity. 


Estimating. 


Comparative study of bolt 


Text work, Dooley's Applied 


Bulletin No. 52, Federal 


driven and individual driv- 


Science for Metal Workers. 


Board. 


en machines. 


Bulletin No. 52, Federal Bd. 




Planning operations. 


Mechanics of trade empha- 
sized. 




Leveling and aligning shafts. 






Facts about production. 






Shop records. 


Furtlior work in morhanios. 


logarithms. 


Legal aspects of industrial 


Strength of materials. 


•Jhop trigonometry. 


regulations. 


Chemistry of materials. 


j^stimating. 


lyio work. 
Jigs. 

Masterplate. 
Trade journals. 


Metallurgy. 


( 







36 Supervision of the 

of the teacher's course of study. The term 
^^unif refers either to the hmited nature of the 
work or to the amount of time to be devoted to a 
particular kind of work. Thus either ^4athe 
work'' or ^^a six weeks' course in lathe w^ork" are 
terms that might be used as a title of one of the unit 
courses in ^^ machine shop practice". The sense 
in which the word ^^unit" will bemused will de- 
pend upon the content of the course. It is evi- 
dent that the course of study for six weeks of 
work could not be expected to be as inclusive 
and comprehensive as that indicated by the first 
term above which might include, if one were to 
judge by the name used, rather complete in- 
struction and considerable practice in all work 
upon the lathe. 

In order that this outline may regulate and 
guide the work of the teacher, it should be rather 
complete, not in details but in the information 
and suggestions of a general nature so that the 
teacher may be given freedom and left upon his 
own responsibility in developing an art of teach- 
ing. The outline should serve as a base for the 
building up of organized subject matter and 
methods by the teacher. It should point out 
experiences needed by the individuals for the 
developing of ability in a sphere of activity. 
These experiences may be many and varied. 
They may consist of skills that need practice, 



special Subjects 37 

a power of reasoning that needs development, 
a habit that should be formed, a sense of appreci- 
ation or one of danger that needs to be realized, 
etc. 

Not only must the experiences be indicated 
but the proper order for presenting them should 
be shown, and the approximate amount of time 
to be devoted to different phases of the work 
should be given. 

Following are two examples of unit courses of 
study such as are given teachers of considerable 
experience: 

Subject: DRAWING 
September 8 — October 17, 19 . . 



Grade IV 



Aim or phase of subject: NATURE DRAWING for EXPRES- 
SIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Draw with pencil or with brush and ink or color, simple sprays 
of leaves; flowers as astor, marigold, clover, salvia; seed pods on 
the stalk as bean, pea, or milkweed; berries on the vine as wood- 
bine, or a whole plantain, noting lines of growth, light or dark, and 
color. 

It is a good plan to try each kind of plant growth with pencil, 
then with brush and ink, and finally with water colors. With the 
pencil we may carefully note the details; with the ink we may em- 
phasize the swing and movement of the whole; and with the color 
we may record in addition the play and variety of coloring. Aim 
for full color effects. Endeavor to secure plant forms which are 
really beautiful in color. We can hardly expect children to make 
beautiful drawings from commonplace specimens. Occasionally 
make the drawing in an enclosed frame as an oblong, which frame 
should be colored in a grayed tone of the dominant color of the 
drawing. 



38 Supervision of the 

Consider the placing, size, shape and color of the initial with 
which the drawing is signed. When the drawing is finished, trim 
the sheet to the right size and shape and, if desirable, mount it» 

School Year 19. . .-. .. 



Course: MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 

Subject: SHOP DRAWING 

(First Year Vocational) 

I— LETTERING: 

A — Vertical stroke Gothic caps — practice lettering each day — 
follow a sequence in strokes as applied to the various letters and 
numerals and according to some accepted standard. A period of 
fifteen minutes each day is recommended. 

II— ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION: 

A — Straight Lines — involving horizontal and perpendicular 
lines. Use Tee square and angles. Make full size drawings from 
models. Dimension them. 

B — Straight Lines Involving Oblique Lines — demonstrating 
the use of the angles. Make full size. Show proper placement of 
dimensions. Indicate hidden edges. 

Ill— GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS: 

Involving the use of instruments such as compass and dividers. 

A — Angular — such as inscribing a triangle within a circle; 
bisecting a straight line, bisecting an angle, finding center from 
three points in circumference, drawing hexagon, etc. 

B — Circles — circumference, diameter and radius explained — 
simple models applying use of the compass — center lines, simple 
sectional vie*vs, section lines, placement of dimensions. 

C — Straight and oblique lines tangent to circles — method of 
determining points of tangency — center lines — proper placement 
of dimension lines and leaders — half section explained. 

D — Tangency or circles — method of determining points of 
tangency center lines — dimensions — quarter section explained. 

IV— SKETCHING MACHINE DETAILS— using actual machine 
parts: 
A — Simple objects at first. 



special Subjects 39 

1 — Sketches made as near correct proportions as can be 
determined from sight. 

2 — No ruled lines nor use of compass should be made; no 
measurements taken from object or applied to sketch until the 
work of sketching is completed. 

3 — All necessary dimensions given to completed sketch. 
4 — Title, date, material are part of working sketch and 
should be included. 
W B — Sketches of more complex parts of machines. 
^ .^C — Sketches requiring a change of scale from that of object 
being drawn, i. e. — either^larger or smaller. 

The examples shown above are suitable for 
use by a teacher who has had considerable teach- 
ing experience and has proven that he can build 
up a well-rounded and balanced, detailed course 
of study — called a teacher's course of study — 
about such outlines. 

For those lacking in experience or otherwise 
needing particular help, outlines, more complete 
in some respects, would be more valuable. Such 
outlines of unit courses of study should: 

1 — Be basic outlines for the use of the teacher. 

2 — Set forth the nature of the work — processes, 
problems, projects, outside readings, informational 
and inspectional class trips, etc. — and the mini- 
mum amount of work to be covered. 

3 — Give the best sequence for the presentation 
of the subject matter. 

4 — Indicate or suggest correlations with other 
subjects. 

5 — State the approximate amount of time to 
be devoted to the different pliases of the work. 



40 Supervision of the 

6 — Leave opportunity for the development of 
initiative, originality and self-confidence on the 
part of the teacher. 

Such outlines also might well: 

1 — Suggest supplementary or additional work 
for use in meeting varying pupil needs and abil- 
ities. 

2 — Give pertinent references to subject mat- 
ter, methods of teaching, etc., to which the teacher 
might look for further help. 

3 — Include some good examples of teachers' 
courses of study and detailed lesson plans. 

The third form or teacher's course of study is 
the complete organized outline of instruction in 
the subject, made by the teacher and based upon 
the unit course-of-study outline given him by the 
supervisor. 

Where supervisors furnish the teachers with 
such outhnes as would be obtained were they to 
include in them the points given just above, no 
teachers' course of study will be necessary or 
should be desired by the supervisor. The teachers 
will have a very good guide to follow in making 
out their lesson plans, and the latter will be suffi- 
cient to inform the supervisor as to how closely 
each teacher is following the unit outline and the 
suggestions and what progress he is making in 
covering the scope of work. Detailed lesson 
plans, from new teachers and possibly from some 



special Subjects 41 

others at the beginning of the year, should show 
the teachers' ability to organize and prepare the 
work of instruction. Later weekly plans or briefs 
may be sufficient. 

Carefully thought out plans for the work for 
a year or semester are necessary, and if the super- 
visor does not furnish the teacher with an outline 
complete enough for the latter to develop his 
daily and weekly plans from, then he must see 
that the teacher constructs one on the same prin- 
ciples as are given above. The supervisor w^ho 
can delegate some of this responsibility to his teach- 
ers without sacrificing the quality of instruction 
or overburdening his teachers, does more for his 
teachers, perhaps, than the one who gives them 
less chance to develop by furnishing them with 
complete instructions in outlined form. 

Lesson Plans 

The supervisor will wish to know (1) that his 
teachers are planning their work, (2) how they 
are planning it and (3) how fast they are pro- 
gressing through the course of study. This infor- 
mation will be gained from lesson plans handed 
in by the teachers. From the teachers, new to 
the system or the subject matter, will be desired 
detailed lesson plans. The ability of the teacher 
to interpret the outlined course of study handed 
out by the supervisor and his power to construct 
about it a detailed plan complete and in accordance 



42 



Supervision of the 



WEEKLY LESSON PLAN 
PUBLIC SCHOOL 



IMDU5^n2IAL. AI2.TS DBPAl^TMENT 
19 19 



^vV Planned for tKe Week of _ 

ScKool 5ubj e c b 

Mond a y 



to_ 

Grade 

-Class- 
Year 



. Teacher- 



Tuesday- 



U/ednesday_ 



Thursday- 



Friday- 



WEEKLY LESSON PLAN . 
Pimi.ir. .srHoni. 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 
19 19 

U^rk AccomDlished Dunn<* tho U/ppk of tn 


.Sr.Konl .Siiliiprl 


Grade 


J Year 1 




DEMONSTCi^TIOH 


OUTSIDE: STUDY 


WOCK COMPLhTE-D 


Monday 
































Tuesdavj 
































Wednesdau 
































Thursday 
































Friday 

































Fig. 9. Top: Obvorso. liottom: IJovoiso. 



special Subjects 43 

with the best methods will indicate at an 
early date where the supervisor's help is most 
needed. 

The new teachers will usually need much more 
attention than the older ones. It may be that 
they will be unable to plan their lessons in a way 
at all satisfactory to the supervisor and he may 
be obliged at first to furnish them with detailed 
lesson plans. If this is necessary, the teachers 
should be present when the supervisor plans these 
lessons, and should be encouraged by the super- 
visor to contribute as much to the building of the 
plan as they possibly can. The aim of the super- 
visor should be to gradually train the teacher in 
the art of planning his teaching correctly and to 
release to him as fast as is possible, the responsi- 
bihty for this planning. The purpose is to develop 
early in the teacher proficiency and initiative, 
with abihty to rely upon himself for the detailed 
construction of the lessons. 

A detailed lesson plan should show the dif- 
ferent steps or divisions of a complete lesson: 
Preparation, Presentation, Application, and In- 
spection. A form for a guide in making out a 
detailed lesson plan will help the teacher in the 
construction of a lesson and will be of vakie to 
the supervisor wlicn lie inspects it. Detailed 
lesson plans sliould be made in duplicate so that 
both the supervisor and the teacher may have one. 



44 Supervision of the 

The following is suggestive of a form that 
might be used as a guide: 

Guide for Constructing Daily Lesson Plan 

Grade 

School Class Subject .... 

Teacher Date Year 

1 — Assignment of advance work. 
2 — Preparation — Time . 

a — Points to be brought out in review, 
b — Examples of how these points will be brought out. 
3 — Presentation — Time. 

a — Purpose or aim of daj^'s lesson, 
b — Development of new points through 
1 — What informational matter? 
2 — What demonstrations? 

(a) Indicate new materials and equipment. 
3 — Asking for and answering questions of pupils. 

(Include this heading on lesson plan sheet as reminder.) 
4 — Generalization of points in bl and b2 above. 
4 — Application. 

a — How to make it? 
b — What projects or exercises? 
5 — Inspection, 
a — How? 
b — When is work satisfactory? 

From teachers with whose work the supervisor 
is familiar detailed plans may not be necessary. 
However, he will wish to know that they are going 
to their classes day after day with their work 
planned, and he will wish to know periodically 
what- progress is being made and how closely the 
work planned corresponds with that actually ac- 
complished. For this purpose a different kind of 
form is suggested and shown in Fig. 9. It records, 
a week in advance, what work the teacher plans 



special Subjects 45 

to take up during the following week and it gives 
on the back of the same sheet a record of what 
work was accomplished in the preceding week. 
While there may not be a demonstration or out- 
side assignment each day, there is provision for 
recording such work when it is given. Such rec- 
ords, kept by the supervisor, are of value when 
attempting to better a course of study in a sub- 
ject for the succeeding year. They serve as well 
as an index to determine which teachers need 
more particularly the help of the supervisor in 
interpreting the course of study and organizing 
their teaching plans. 

Getting Correlations 

The outlined course of study given out by the 
supervisor may include suggestions and examples 
of correlations, but considerable attention on his 
part will be necessary to see that application of 
his suggestions is made by the teachers. He may 
find it of advantage to enlist the interest and help 
of associate supervisors in an endeavor to get as 
much correlation between the different subjects 
as is consistent without interfering with the se- 
quence of work in charge of the different super- 
visors. 

Think what opportunity the drawing teacher 
has for getting correlations! The pupil studying 
architectural drawing will be helped, if under tlie 
drawing teacher, he can be trained to make per- 



46 Supervision of the 

spective sketches of buildings and to get practice 
in rendering. Many correlations between drawing 
and language and literature are suggested by 
seasonal activities and holidays. The literature 
of the Indian suggests that the pupils may draw 
canoes and wigwams; the Eskimo suggests dog 
sleds and stocky little men clothed in furs. In 
correlation with the study of geography, rivers, 
harbors, boats, maps, mountains and many other 
geographical topics may be represented by draw- 
ings. One drawing supervisor encourages cor- 
relations by noting, on his course-of-study outline, 
paragraphs of the following nature: ^^ Whenever, 
during the school year, it seems wise to concentrate 
the drawing work about a center of interest re- 
lated to school or home life, the teacher is re- 
quested to temporarily put aside the regular 
drawing work schedule. Let us make our school 
drawing vitally related to life'\ 

Though correlations between some subjects in 
separate departments are not so readily obtained, 
yet the supervisors should cooperate in an en- 
deavor to so organize their courses that the 
pupils will find one subject of marked functional 
value in the study of others. 

Demonstration Teaching 

One of the basic reasons for having supervision 
of the special subjects is to provide training for 
the teachers, while regularly employed, that better 



special Subjects 47 

instruction may be given the pupils. One of the 
ways in which the supervisor can help the teacher 
is to teach for him from time to time, to exemplify 
the use of the best methods and good teaching 
technique. This is called demonstration teaching 
and should be of particular value to the teacher 
who has little or no practical teaching experience 
and to the experienced teacher who is beginning 
new subject matter. 

The supervisor should very carefully plan his 
demonstration lesson. From his observation of 
the work of a teacher, he will have determined 
weaknesses which should be the points for con- 
sideration when the supervisor makes the plans 
for demonstration teaching. Each demonstra- 
tion should have as its aim to train the teacher 
to overcome some of these weaknesses. All weak- 
nesses cannot be dealt with in one lesson, and this 
should not be attempted, for the value and help 
to the teacher will not be so great when he is ex- 
pected to keep account of a number of points as 
when he has only a few, specific points to look for. 

Before giving a demonstration lesson, the 
supervisor should have a conference with the 
teacher, during which observed weaknesses should 
be pointed out in a constructively critical way, 
so that the teacher will not only see where lie is 
failing, but also will learn what he can do to 
strengthen himself in these particulars. Soon 



48 . Supervision of the 

after this conference, the demonstration lesson 
should follow to illustrate how these weaknesses 
can be overcome by using different methods or 
devices, etc. In order to get the most good from 
such a lesson, the teacher should be carefully 
informed as to just what pedagogical principles, 
methods and technique are to be shown particu- 
larly for his benefit. He should further under- 
stand that he is to observe these points carefully 
during the lesson so that he may be prepared to 
discuss them with the supervisor not long after 
the giving of the lesson. The two should then 
recall and discuss the teaching of the lesson to 
see if the aim of the lesson was realized, if the 
supervisor clearly demonstrated the points he 
had intended to, if the teacher observed them and 
if he understood the advantages of the methods 
of the supervisor over his own and knew how to 
change his methods in accordance with this under- 
standing. 

Demonstration lessons are not necessarily 
given just for new teachers or teachers of new 
subject matter, for it is possible at times to have 
demonstration lessons for groups of departmental 
teachers that will be of value to all. A very few 
teachers' meetings might profitably consist of 
demonstration lessons and discussions of them. 
It may not be a wise policy for the supervisor to 
do all of this demonstration teaching in meetings, 



special Subjects 49 

for he may well expect to have teachers who are 
better able than he to demonstrate good teaching 
of their particular subject. It is not expected 
that the supervisor can master each and every 
subject under his charge and keep fresh and up- 
to-date in the teaching of each. He should, how- 
ever, be able to direct demonstration teaching 
so that all teachers, and especially the inexperi- 
enced ones, may get benefit from it. 

Observation and Inspection 

Observation of teaching is undertaken for the 
purpose of giving the supervisor information that 
will aid him in bettering the work of the teacher. 
The process of observing should be carried on in 
such a way as not to alter the conditions that 
usually obtain in the classroom, for then the 
supervisor will get false impressions and likely 
establish his plans for direction of the teaching 
upon a false basis. 

The effect of the presence of the supervisor 
upon the work of the teacher and the pupils will 
depend mainly upon the past experiences of the 
latter when the supervisor has called and upon 
an understanding by the teacher of the purpose 
and need of the visits. The coming of the super- 
visor should cause as Httle attention as is possible. 
The teacher should know tluit the supervisor will 
be keenly analytical of all tliat is going on and 
will undoubtedly wish to frankly discuss the work 



^0 Supervision of the 

of the teacher and the pupils at a later and pri- 
vate interview. But the teacher should also know 
that the visit of the supervisor is a friendly one, 
that he will see the commendable features of the 
work, as well as the shortcomings of the teacher, 
and that his criticisms will contain suggestions 
that will be helpful and will not be given before 
the pupils. 

The supervisor, who exhibits such an air of 
authority and importance as to create awe on 
the part of the pupils and to arouse in the teacher 
a feeling of resentment, or the one who makes 
himself conspicuous in an apparent effort to get 
the good will of the pupils and the teacher, will 
not be able to better the work of instruction as 
he should. Of course, there should be the natural 
exchange of recognition between the supervisor 
and the teacher — a pleasant and simple greeting 
or a friendly nod and smile of recognition. 

In order to see normal teaching of the class, 
it is perhaps well to have the teacher uninformed 
of the visit of the supervisor. If the attitude of 
the supervisor is proper and the teacher has pre- 
pared the lesson, no embarrassment will result. 
Where possible, the supervisor should have, in 
advance of the day of observation, a copy of the 
proposed work for that day, the better to evaluate 
the ability and accomplishment of the teacher 
and pupils. It is also well to have with him notes 



special Subjects 51 

of the preceding discussion with the teacher con- 
cerning the latter^s work, in order to see what 
effect his previous observations, criticisms and 
suggestions have had upon the teacher. This 
statement suggests that it is of value to take 
notes (preferably not in the classroom) of the 
points of the work to be discussed at the inter- 
view following, as soon as possible, the observa- 
tion of the teaching. 

In observing, taking notes and tendering criti- 
cisms, the supervisor can do the most good when 
he deals first with the large elements of subject 
matter, method, pupil results, etc., allowing the 
smaller details to come up when points of more 
importance have been discussed and corrected. 
Good features of the work along with the poor 
and few poor features at a time, constitute a well- 
balanced program for the improving of teaching 
through observation and discussion. 

The ability of the supervisor to supervise will 
be disclosed when he sees the effect of his super- 
vision upon the attitude and methods of the 
teacher and sees the value of the pupil attain- 
ments, provided the teacher is one that can be 
helped. His task will be that of convincing the 
teacher of his shortcomings and getting him to 
vigorously react for the bettering of his teaching 
ability. The supervisor has several methods of 
approach that can be used for this purpose. He 



52 Supervision of the 

can quietly observe wherein the teacher is defi- 
cient and frankly tell him his faults and how to 
correct them, or by the use of skilful questioning 
he may lead the teacher to see his faults himself. 
Again, he may unassumingly get the results he 
wishes by passing quietly around among the 
pupils at work, asking a question here, explaining 
a point there, repeating a demonstration, stimu- 
lating them to reason and think for themselves, 
correcting a poor habit or method of work — more 
for the help to the teacher in an indirect way 
than to the pupils. Self-realization of his own 
faults will be of more value and stimulation to* 
the teacher in increasing his art of teaching than 
will the recognition of these faults through the 
pointing out of them by some one else. Another 
method of helping the teacher is through demon- 
stration teaching following the pointing out of 
weaknesses. This method should show the teacher 
how these weaknesses can be overcome. 

Observation and inspection of teaching, ex- 
cept at the end of the year or semester, will 
ordinarily be closely correlated. Observation will 
deal with the nature of the subject matter, the 
methods of the^ teacher, methods of work of the 
pupils, etc. .Inspection will deal more with phys- 
ical conditions — the results of the work of the 
pupils as shown by completed projects, etc., the 
hght, temperature, orderliness, care of desks, 



special Subjects 53 

equipment, machines, etc. Inspection will throw 
much light upon the work of the teacher, but as 
in observation, it should be carried on unassum- 
ingly, informally, and yet analytically. 

Observation by Teachers 

Besides the help to teachers afforded by ob- 
serving skilful teaching at teachers' meetings and 
the teaching done by supervisors in the teachers' 
own rooms, much value should result from giving 
instructors a chance to see the actual work of 
other teachers of their own or related subjects in 
other schools of the city or in neighboring com- 
munities. From seeing how strong teachers are 
organizing their work and from witnessing the 
results obtained by them, the natural competitive 
spirit is stirred in teachers and they may be ex- 
pected to view their own work and the sugges- 
tions of the supervisor from a different point of 
view. Such visits will create a desire to be near 
the front in the race to perform educational serv- 
ice and to be esteemed proficient. 

Understanding what work is given to pupils 
previous to coming into his class and knowing 
what they will get in the next grade or class, 
often helps a teacher to unify and correlate his 
work and to understand more clearly the relative 
position of it in the school curriculum. 

Both out of fairness to the teacher being 
observed and for the good of the teachers observing, 



54 Supervision of the 

the demonstration teacher should know7!^of 
the proposed visit and the features of the work 
which he is more particularly to demonstrate. 
Likewise, the visiting teachers should have definite 
points to look for and a plan for their observa- 
tion. In order that the visiting teachers may have 
some guide while observing and in order that the 
supervisor may get a well organized report of the 
observations of the teachers to acquaint him 
with their ability to receive aid from such visiting, 
it is well to furnish them with a form containing 
a topical analysis. The following are suggestive 
of topics that might be suitable for use when 
visiting neighboring schools and when a general 
survey of conditions in a class is to be made. 
Where the observation is for the purpose of 
observing more definitely certain methods, kinds 
of subject matter, technique, etc., as might be 
the case in a teacher's own system, the form may 
be less extensive and more specific and detailed. 

SUGGESTED POINTS FOR OBSERVATION • 
I— PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 

1 — Ventilation, temperature and light. 
2 — Arrangement of 

A — Machinery. 

B — Equipment. 

C — Displays of work and exhibits. 

D — Apparatus and illustrative material. 

E — Stock room and tool crib. 

F — Safety first precautions. 
3 — Orderliness of 

A — Machinery. 



special Subjects 55 

B — Pupils' desks or benches. 
C — Illustrative material on blackboards. 
D — Teacher's desk. 
4 — Finished work of pupils. 
A — Workmanship . 
B — Design and construction. 
C — Type of work 
a — Exercises? 
b — Variably practical? 
c — Strictly vocational? 

d — Public projects — school or community, etc.? 
5 — Give Constructive comments on (I). 
II— THE LESSON 
1— The Aim. 

A — Clear and definite to pupils. 
2 — Preparation Step 
A — Nature of it. 
B — Did it appear to function? 
C — What devices used? 
3 — Presentation Step 
A— Mental Means, 
a — Lecture, 
b — Demonstration, 
c — Questions and answers. 
B — Physical Means 

a — Tools, material, blackboard, charts, special objects, etc. 
4 — Application Step 
A— Where? 
B— How? 
C— What? 
D — What was teacher doing? 

a — Individual help to those most needing it? 
b — Keeping eye on each member? 
c — Did pupils seek his help? 
etc. 
5 — Inspection Step 

A — As class worked or near end of period? 
B — Did pupils get permission to take up each successive new 
step or did they proceed as they wished? 



56 ^ Supervision of the 

C — Were the apparent standards of quality exacted by the 
teacher good? 
6 — Give constructive comments on (II). 
Ill— ART OR TECHNIQUE OF TEACHING 
1 — Did teacher 

A — Hold interest of pupils? 

B — Maintain good order without great effort? 

C — Seem approachable by pupils and enthusiastic? 

D— etc. 
2 — Had he chosen well 

A — The Method of developing the lesson? 

B — The explanatory or illustrative material? 

C — The devices for making the application? 
3 — Was he apparently well versed in knowledge of the subject 

matter? 
4 — Did he choose wise questions and state them clearly? 
5 — Could the questions be answered from memory or were they 

thought provoking? 
6 — Did he make proper generalizations? 
7 — Did he bring about definite reactions in and questions from 

the pupils? 
8 — Give constructive comments on {III). 

The supervisor may draw up a form for the 
purpose of having it used as a guide when observ- 
ing a class or constructing a report, or he may 
make a form in such a way as to leave spaces 
opposite each topic so that notes may be written 
in and the completed form returned to the super- 
visor. The latter method has advantages in that 
the teacher can more quickly and easily make a 
report and the supervisor can more readily in- 
spect the report. 
Marks and Tests of Pupil Attainments 

Need for and Purpose of Standard Tests — The 
marks of teachers are the universally accepted 



special Subjects 57 

measure of the ability of pupils in their school 
work. Upon these marks, pupils, parents, school 
officers and others have based their reasons for 
action. By them have been decided questions 
of promotion of pupils, admission to advanced 
institutions, probable success in certain lines of 
work, elimination from examinations, recommenda- 
tions to employers, etc. 

Until within the last ten years or so and 
through tacit assent at least, these marks have 
been thought fairly reHable and valid, but lately 
investigations of scientifically inchned educators, 
have shown that a great variation exists in the 
ability of different individuals to interpret values 
and assign marks to them. 

Such investigations have been startling in the 
light they have thrown upon conditions and the 
variations existing in the standards of teachers, 
even in the same school or department and teach- 
ing the same subjects. Dearborn, in one of his 
investigations has indicated a case of a school 
where two teachers in the same department 
varied greatly. One gave a mark of ^^ excellent 
to 43 per cent of his pupils and ^^ failed'' none of 
them, while the other gave ^'excellent'' to none 
of his pupils, but failed 14 per cent of them. 
Such examples, where marked extremes exist 
within a department and where many of the 
students are enrolled in classes of both instructors, 



^8 



Supervision of the 



clearly suggest that deficiencies of some kind may 
be present. It is not to be doubted but that 
much of the trouble lies in the instructor's lack 
of ability to interpret values. 

Kelly,- in his report on an experiment at 
Harvard, explains how seven instructors of one 
division of that university were given ten 
mid-year examination books to mark, each mark- 
ing the same ten books. In each book were ten 
answers to questions asked in such a way that 
fundamentally there could be no disagreement as 
to the statement of fact given in any answer. 
Each book was marked separately and each book 
was given a mark as a whole. The difference 
between the highest and lowest marks for any 
one paper (on the basis of 100 points as '^ per- 
fect '0 was, in no case, less than twelve points 
and for one paper there was a difference of 28 
points. To show that this great variation was 
consistently noticeable, the following table, adapt- 
ed from Kelly's report, is given: 

Difference between 
high and low marks 
20 points 
12 points 



Book No. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



15 points 
28 points 
20 points 
22 points 
14 points 
19 points 
17 points 
19 points 



special Subjects 59 

If such a condition exists within a department 
of a school and where the fact of an answer can 
be Httle arbitrated, what may be the variation 
expected where the personal opinions of the 
teacher can affect, even more, the value given 
to expressions of pupil attainment and where 
these teachers are in different systems and work 
under varying conditions? 

Discovery of such variations, in the evalua- 
tion by teachers of pupil ability and attainments 
has stimulated many educators to investigate the 
fundamental reasons for such variations and to 
devise means for standardizing the measurement 
of school work. Starch, in his ^^Educational 
Measurements'^ says that ^^four major factors 
enter into the situation, (1) differences among 
the standards of different teachers, (2) difference 
among the standards of different schools, (3) 
differences in the relative values placed by dif- 
ferent teachers upon various elements in a paper, 
(4) differences due to the inability to distinguish 
between closely alHed degrees of merit''. 

If the different teachers of a study could agree 
as to what the subject matter of the study during 
certain years of progress through the schools, 
should consist of, could liave a common under- 
standing of wliat good, medium, poor, etc., abil- 
ity in the subject would be, would arrive at some 
common agreement as to the relative values of 



60 Supervision oj the 

different elements in a subject, and would use 
some objective means for measuring the ability 
of the pupilS; there would be vastly more con- 
sistency in the different estimates of pupil attain- 
ments among teachers and schools. Some pupils 
would not fail under one teacher while others of 
no more ability in the same subject, get exemp- 
tion from taking an examination simply because 
they are rated by another teacher. 

It is to bring about such a condition of stand- 
ardization that the socalled ^^ Standard Tests and 
Measurements'/ have been devised and we have, 
as a result, tests for v/riting, reading, spelling, 
arithmetic, etc., worked out by such men as 
Thorndike, Gray, Ayres, Starch and many others. 

To understand how these tests are the result 
of considerable scientific investigation, it might 
be well to consider here, as an example, a test for 
ability in spelling. 

The making of a spelling test raises such 
questions as: 1. What words should be used in 
the test? 2. How many words should be included? 
3. How difficult should they be? 4. How can they 
best be given? As our language contains many 
words not frequently used by the average person 
and not frequently taught, the test should not 
include them but should consist of the most com- 
monly used words. 



special Subjects 61 

The Ayres' Measuring Scale for 
Ability in Spelling 

To determine the most commonly used words, 
Ayres examined a vast amount of typical written 
material such as letters, newspapers and compo- 
sitions of pupils. He thus compiled a list of 1,000 
words used most frequently and determined the 
number of times each word was used. These 
1,000 common words are used in his scale. 

His next step was to determine the relative 
difficulty of the words. For this purpose he di- 
vided the 1,000 words into fifty lists of twenty 
words each and had each list spelled by the 
children of two consecutive grades in a number 
of cities. He then divided the 1,000 words into 
another fifty lists of twenty words each and had 
them spelled by the children in four consecutive 
grades. From the information thus obtained 
Ayres classified the words into twenty-six groups, 
the words of each group being of approximately 
the same difficulty for pupils of a given grade. 
It must be jmderstood that the final conclusions 
were derived only after much investigation, in 
which the 1,000 words were spelled by about 
70,000 children and each word was spelled on an 
average of 1,400 times. 

The classified list which Ayres obtained, to- 
gether with the per cent of pupils in each grade 
who spelled the words correctly, is called '^The 



62 Supervision of the 

Ayres' Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling''. 
Under this title, it is printed and is obtainable for 
use in connection with spelling tests. 

Tests have only been partly used to advantage 
when they have been made the means of establish- 
ing a record, of the relative ability in a subject, of 
pupils within a group or class. The tests should 
also serve as a means for determining the causes 
for deficiencies among those pupils who rank low 
in ability so that the teacher may give those 
individuals proper help. 

It is well to recall here, that common expres- 
sion, ^^ Tests test only what they test''. In other 
words, tests measure certain kinds of ability and 
are not necessarily all around measures of ability 
and the application of several tests may be needed 
to measure ability in a subject. For instance, for 
estimating ability in ^^ reading", we have tests 
for comprehension, for vocabularies, for oral ex- 
pression, etc. Each measures a certain type of 
reading ability and seeks to determine the partic- 
ular help needed by different individuals to im- 
prove their reading efficiency. 

Individual Differences and the Distri- 
bution OF Marks 

Many investigations, for particular character- 
istics of large numbers of objects of nature and 
which were classified according to the number of 
times certain characteristics occur in the group. 



special Subjects 



63 



have disclosed the fact that there seems to be a 
certain well defined law of the distribution of the 
objects about the characteristics. When such dis- 
tributions are plotted, a curve called the proba- 
bility curve is obtained and illustrates graphically 
the distribution of the objects. It always seems, 
that in certain characteristics, a rather large per 
cent of the objects are similar in some respect, 
that a smaller per cent are similar in other char- 
acteristics, and that in a comparatively small 
degree some are similar in still another particular, 
etc. 

As an example, Yule, in his ^^ Theory of Sta- 
tistics'' tells that of 1,000 students, classified as 
to height, approximately 38 per cent were of a 
medium height, 24 per cent were of a lesser 
height, 7 per cent were very short, 24 per cent 
were rather tall, while 7 per cent were unusually 
tall. 

In the illustration below is shown a graphical 
representation of how a similar distribution of 
300 members would appear. 



Very Tall 


Tall 


Medium 

M 


Short 


Verx] Ohort 
' P 


• 




: ; ; : ; : : : : : 


:::::::::: 


• 



PJi"' 



C'.O'^i 



7% 



Investigations by Starch of the distributions 
of approximately 5,000 grades given to freshmen 



64 Supervision of the 

in the University of Wisconsin show a close con- 
formity to these other distributions, and he main- 
tains ^Hhat marks on the whole and for large 
groups of pupils of usual ability should be dis- 
tributed with a reasonably close conformity to 
the normal, bell-shaped probability curve''. He 
further states his belief that, if some common 
basis will be assumed for the distribution of the 
marks by the teachers, there will result a ^^ greater 
agreement in the marks given to the same pieces 
of work by different judges/' 

From this it can be inferred that the marks, 
in groups large enough not to be seriously effected 
by unusual or accidental variations, should be 
such that a rather definite per centage of them 
should fall in the ^^ fairs", a certain approximate 
percentage should be ^ Spoors", etc. 

If the marks of a teacher, given to students in 
a number of his classes or over a period of two or 
three years, do not distribute themselves in this 
manner, it should cause the supervisor to wish to 
study particularly the work of this teacher to see 
why such a condition exists. If the teacher is 
giving high grades to his pupils, this fact should 
raise questions. The supervisor should wish to 
find out if this teacher is so strong that, in rela- 
tion to the work of other pupils under other 
teachers, the work of his pupils deserves such high 
grading, or whether the standards of excellence 



special Subjects 65 

of this teacher are lower than they should 
be, with the result that the students get higher 
grades than they deserve. It is very probable 
that teachers, taken as a whole, have good 
ability to grade a pupil within a class as 
relatively low or high in ability as com- 
pared to others in the class. When their 
distribution of marks does not compare favorably 
with the normal distribution, it may well be ex- 
pected that, when grading the pupils, they have 
in mind wrong standards of excellence. In other 
words they set their standards of pupil accomplish- 
ment either too low or too high. 

Some Investigations of Distribution 
OF Marks 

To help the reader determine from actual 
statistics whether the matter of marking is one 
that needs guidance and whether it should be 
made a subject of investigation by many super- 
visors, the following data is submitted in graphical 
form, the easier to make comparisons. The sym- 
bols that will be used with these graphs are as 
follows : 

FAlLr POOR AvW^AG^ C300D HCTU.fiir 



— o— 




o 



Fig. U). 

The normal distribution referred to above is 
approximately as shown in Fig. 11. 



66 



Supervision of the 



Fig. 11. 

In Fig. 12 is shown the distribution of 96,000 
grades in the universities of Harvard, Cornell, 
Missouri and Wisconsin. It will be noticed that 
this distribution compares very favorably with 
the normal distribution . The ' ' incomplete ' ^ marks 
may be ignored so far as distribution is concerned 
for the chances are that such a grade would be 
given to pupils in any of the five levels of ability,* 




-INCOMPLETE 2.7% 



Fig. 12. 
96,000 marks in universities of Harvard, Cornell, Missouri and Wisconsin. 




-INCOMPLETE 3.4-% 

Fig. 13. 31,000 marks in University of Wisconsin, 

Fig. 13 shows the result of another investiga- 
tion and adds further to the evidence strengthen- 
ing the theory that the distributions should con- 
form rather closely to the normal distribution. 

The experience of the writer both in his own 
classes and through watching the work of other 
teachers has led him to question if it may not be 
true, were investigations made, that as a rule, it 

♦This data obtained through the courtesy of the School of Education, 
University of Wisconsin. 



special Subjects 



67 



would be found that the special subjects teachers 
give sKghtly higher grades than do the teachers 
in other subjects. It may not be wrong to assume 
that pupils in many of the special subjects can 
present more tangible evidence of work done, the 
use they have made of their time, etc., Johnny 
has his shoeshining box which he has made and 
varnished; Mary has canned fruit, jelly or cookies 
which she prepared in the school kitchen; George 
can present a complete set of drawings for the 
cottage on the lake, etc. When such results are 
shown and when the youngsters are so eager to 
take the things home to show the family and even 
though the box is not square, the pie crust is like 
leather, and the drawings are irregularly lettered, 
is it to be wondered that it might be found that 
teachers in such subjects rarely say ^^fair^ and 



SPECIAL SUBJECTS 



(^ 



■<2E>- 



ds) 



NO PAILS 
SCIENCE- 



VM^^rml^^ 






(H) 



1% PAILS 
MATHEMATICS 




-MO FAILS 



f;..' m 



68 



Supervision of the 



rate a boy as ^^good'' when perhaps, an ^^ average'' 
or ^'fair'' would have been fully as just? 

With such a question in mind, investigations 
were made in several schools to compare the 
marking in the special subjects with that in the 
socalled academic subjects, and at the same time 
to see how nearly the distribution conformed to 
that shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. 14 are shown data 
compiled in a city high school for marks running 
over a period of several years. It will be noticed 
that, though no ^^ fails'' were given to pupils of 
the special subjects, still the distribution in these 
studies conforms more closely to the normal than 
does the distribution in any of the academic 
groups. Such a variety of distributions, as is 
here shown, is strong evidence of the need of at- 
tention to see why such a situation exists and if 
guidance is not necessary. 

A somewhat similar study was made in another 
large high school in the same city where is located 
the school referred to above. The data was 
collected for different groupings and is shown be- 
low in Figs. 15, 16 and 17. 



Fig. 15. All the Second Year English grades for one year (225 mark.s). 






{zz.gy 



-3.2 

Fig. 16. All the Second Vear Mathematics grades for one year. 



special Subjects 



69 



SOPHOMORE SPECIAL SUBJECTS 




Fig. 17. (Drawing, mechanical drawing, bench work, cabinet making, wood 
turning, domestic art, cooking, sewing). All the grades in the special subjects 
taken during the sophomore year, for one year. 

It will be seen that in this school a much more 
uniform distribution is given throughout. The 
least number of ^^ fails'' are to be found in the 
special subjects, while in them are found the 
greatest number of ^^ goods'', apparently support- 
ing the theory that teachers in such subjects may 
mark high. Another point of note is that approxi- 
mately 85 per cent of the grades, given by the 
special subjects teachers fell in two of the five 
levels, indicating that possibly these teachers are 
failing to make sufficient discrimination and differ- 
entiation between the varying abilities of their 
pupils. 

ENGLISH, MATH. AND SPECIAL SUBJECTS AVERAGED 



^ 



(58) 



Fig. 18. 

The graph, Fig. 18, is the distribution of the 
three groups in the preceding figure grouped to- 
gether. For the sake of comparison the normal 
distribution is pictured with it. Although nothing 
has been done in this high school to urge the 
teachers to conform rather closely to the normal 
distribution, there appears quite a simihirity be- 
tween the two graphs. 



70 Supervision of the 

To show how one teacher may mark entirely 
different from other teachers of the same subject 
and in the same school, the data in Fig. 19 are 



ENGLISH 



IP^gTJ)^. ^ C4Zg) I (23:"B) 






-NO FAILS 1%P00R 

Fig. 19. One teacher in f^ur classes daring one year. (105 fin?.l mirk??). 

given. According to this teacher's idea of the 
accomplishment of his pupils, over 70 per cent 
had more than ^^ average ability'' and were classed 
as either ^^ excellent" or ^^good". As the average 
for the several teachers of English in this school, 
and of which group he is a member, shows an 
entirely different distribution, a ^^snap judgment" 
would grant that he had too low standards of 
accomplishment. 

For the teacher and supervisor of special sub- 
jects the following example (Fig. 19a) should re- 
ceive careful attention. It represents the grades 



DRAWINGJ 



^ 



XS^TSX 



T? 



-NO FAILS^NO POORS NO EXCELLEHTS- 

Fig. 19a. A supervisor for the same subject over a period of three years. 

given by a supervisor who has handled a class in 
drawing each year herself. Although she is a mem- 
ber of the group that gave the marks shown in Fig. 
17, still her distribution is markedly different from 
that of the group as a whole. Over a period of 
three years, she has given no ^^ fails", no ^ Spoors" 
and no ^^excellents", indicating very plainly that 



special Subjects 71 

she is not discriminating as she should between 
the varying abiHties of her pupils. 
The Supervisor in Relation to 
Marks and Tests 

The reader may wonder how the supervisor 
can be interested in the matters taken up in the 
foregoing discussion. 

In the first place, the supervisor should wish 
that the teachers under his supervision get an 
approximately normal distribution of their marks, 
and he can do much to guide the marking in his 
department and, incidentally, influence other 
supervisors to do the same. 

In the second place, the supervisor, because of 
his position in the school system, his oversight 
of teachers and pupils within his department and 
his (expected of him) advanced training, is equip- 
ped with an opportunity to make investigations 
of the status of marks and experiment with tests 
with the result that contributions should be made 
that will further the efficiency of instruction in 
the special subjects. 
Guiding the Distribution of Marks 

The conclusions drawn from the results of 
many experiments seem to indicate that the 
most satisfactory marking system would consist 
of a scale of five steps and 

1. Excellent — A or E should be attained and giv- 
en to approximately 7 })er cent of the pupils in a class. 



71 Supervision of the 

2. Superior or Good — B or G should be given 
to about 24 per cent. 

3. Average or Fair — C or F should be given 
to about 38 per cent. 

4. Inferior or Poor — D or P should be given 
to about 24 per cent. 

5. Unsatisfactory or Fail — E or Z should be 
given to about 7 per cent. 

If it seems essential or desirable to indicate 
intervening points of accomplishment, the plus 
and minus signs may be used. The attempt of 
any one teacher to evaluate work by as narrow a 
limit as is indicated by the numerals 75, 76, 77 
or 98, 100, etc., is granting too much ability to 
the human mind to make close distinctions or 
discriminations with any degree of certainty. 

It should be clearly understood that no one 
can justifiably say that the distribution of marks 
in any one class should be the same as the normal 
distribution. This is practically impossible with 
a small class, even though there may be some 
instances of ^^unusuaF' classes as far as the per- 
sonnel goes. Teachers, whose distributions show 
marked departure from a normal distribution 
and until they make a study of the matter, are 
prone to say that theirs is an ^^ unusual' ' class. 
Comparatively speaking, unusual classes, in so 
far as the effect upon the distribution of marks is 
concerned, are few in number and though the 



special Subjects 73 

normal distribution cannot be strictly adhered 
to it can serve as a valuable check and guide for 
the use of teachers and supervisors. Starch says 
that ^^even so small a class as 24 pupils, unless 
specially selected, will conform to the probability 
distribution to a remarkable extent. Certain 
deviations from a strict conformity, should of 
course be permissible where there is a genuine 
reason for them.'^ 

The supervisor can make a study of the marks 
assigned by his teachers to see what uniformity 
of grades exists. He can find the relation between 
the distribution of the marks in his department 
and the distribution in another department. 
These investigations should be a subject of much 
interest and snappy discussions in the depart- 
mental teachers' meetings, besides aiding in es- 
tablishing the marks upon a scientific basis. 

Standardizing Measurements of 
Pupil Attainments 

Very little valuable work has been done in 
furnishing teachers of some of the special sub- 
jects with standard tests. Educators have worked 
out tests for many of the academic subjects, 
reading, writing, arithmetic, spelhng, etc. The 
tests for freehand lettering, devised by Rugg, and 
the tests for drawing, devised by Thorndike, are 
apphcable in the special subjects field, but there 
are very few others. This is a matter in which 



74 Supervision of the 

the special subjects supervisors should be greatly 
interested. They have the opportunity to make 
experiments and work out tests that would be of 
advantage to their associates. If the supervisors 
do not as yet feel competent to undertake such a 
task, let them study what has been done by the 
leaders in the developing of tests for the academic 
subjects. Let them study the ways in which the 
tests were constructed, how the subject matter 
was decided upon, how the standards were ob- 
tained, etc., and let them experiment in making 
tests suitable for measuring ability in the special 
subjects. Through the process of trial and error, 
criticizing, suggesting and correcting, will be de- 
veloped means for standardizing and making more 
efficient the work of instruction in the special 
subjects. 

In general terms, the following is suggestive 
of a possible method of attack in working out 
tests : 

1. Consult courses of study, texts, teachers 
and administrators, experts in the trades, etc., 
to determine the subject-matter content for a 
study during a certain period of a pupil's progress 
through the study. 

2. Plan and work out schemes that will test 
the different kinds of ability that a pupil should 
have to be properly called proficient in the study 
during a certain period. 



special Subjects '' 75 

As noted previously, studies may require dif- 
ferent kinds of ability of a person before he can 
be said to have proficiency in them. For instance, 
before he can be judged proficient in reading, it 
may be necessary to test him separately for com- 
prehension, vocabulary, etc. Similarly, in wood- 
work it may be necessary to test separately for 
trade knowledge, as well as for skill and execu- 
tion. 

From the above, it is evident that schemes will 
need to be devised that will draw out the definite 
information wished and in such a way that the 
results can be accurately evaluated. Examina- 
tion of the standard tests for academic subjects 
now in use will show the varying nature of the 
schemes or devices used. Those schemes used in 
testing ability in the special subjects also will 
vary. There may be information that will be 
gained through the answering of questions, the 
choosing of the proper words to complete sen- 
tences and which thus show that the pupil has or 
does not have the information desired, the ex- 
hibiting of skill and technique in connection with 
processes, etc., any of which will be chosen because 
of their fitness to get accurate results as simply as 
possible. 

Furthermore, the scliemes must be sucli that 
the ability of the pupil can be evaluated with 
little effect from the varying opinions of those 



76 Supervision of the 

who make the estimate, freedom from the effect 
of the ^^ human factor '\ The following question, 
for instance, would not be a good one: ^^ Which 
should you use in planing the end of a board 3 
inches wide, a smooth or a block plane? '^ It 
would not be a good one for the reason that the 
pupil is asked to make one of two possible choices 
of words and a person absolutely uninformed as 
to woodwork would have a 50 per cent chance of 
getting ^^ perfect'^ on that question by simply 
^^ guessing''. If this question were asked thus: 
^^ Which plane should be used on the end of a 
board 3 inches wide?'' it would be better, for 
the person has less chance of getting a good score 
on the question by simply guessing. 'Perhaps, 
even a better way yet, would be to state it as fol- 
lows: ^^ What particular tool should be used for 
planing the end of a board 3 inches wide?" Then 
the guessing chances are comparatively slim, as 
there are many tools from which to make a choice. 
In a similar way, questions that can be answered 
by ^^yes" or ^^no" are not suitable. 

3. Apply the tests to large numbers of pupils 
in the stage of progress through the study for 
which the test is made and determine the ^^ median" 
of ability ^^ which closely approximates the aver- 
age abihty and is safer to use" in the study. A 
median, thus derived from testing large numbers 
of pupils, is called ^Hhe standard median" for 



special Subjects 77 

this test and is the standard by which to judge 
the abiUty of an individual or group of individuals 
to whom this test may be applied. 

Supervisory Uses of Tests 

The following uses are given by Mabel G. 
Bush, in a bulletin called ^^ Agencies of Super- 
vision '\ published by the Wisconsin State De- 
partment of Education: 

1. They show how a given school system com- 
pares in performance with the standard in each 
of the subjects tested. 

2. The tests show the variation in ability 
found in different buildings in the same system. 

3. Differing abilities of pupils in a given grade 
are vividly shown, giving opportunity for re- 
sectioning and promoting classes according to 
ability. 

4. The comparative abilities of a given child 
in each subject can be determined and used as a 
basis for more suitable grading of such a child. 

5. Pupils far above their grade in one or two 
subjects are indicated and can be treated accord- 
ingly, being either allowed to omit those subjects 
or to recite in higher classes. 

6. The phenomenal pupils in any system are 
pointed out, and these exceptional children can 
then be allowed to specialize in the subjects in 
which they are so gifted. 



78 Supervision of the 

7. The very slow pupils are revealed, also 
those who are weak in only certain subjects or 
groups of subjects. Perhaps they should be 
allowed to go on, omitting the studies for which 
they have no native ability. 

8. The careful analysis by each teacher of the 
types of errors made by her pupils indicates in a 
very definite way the concrete exercises which 
should constitute the practice given to the pupils. 

9. Tests confirm estimates of supervisors as 
to comparative strength and weaknesses of various 
teachers. 

10. Teachers especially fitted to teach certain 
subjects in departmental organization are brought 
to notice by the excellence of their results. 

11. Analysis of their results by the teachers 
themselves affords the best type of introspection, 
and the consequent self-set questioning attitude 
as to the causes of unexpected failures is the most 
stimulating kind of training in service which a 
teacher can receive. Improvement is almost sure 
to result from self -judgment of the merit of her 
own work by the teacher. 

12. Progress in ability from grade to grade is 
shown, and places where greater stress needs to 
be put upon any subject are revealed. 

13. Places in the system where certain subjects 
are under-stressed and others are correspondingly 
over-stressed are plainly set forth by test results. 



special Subjects 79 

14. Justification in results for praise or con- 
demnation of any certain method that has been 
extensively used by any teacher is found when 
results of tests are tabulated and compared. 

15. Standard tests throw light on the scien- 
tific phases of teaching and enable the supervisor 
to form more accurate judgments of school con- 
ditions. 

16. Teachers are, helped to broaden their 
standards for estimating attainment in any sub- 
ject. 

17. Tests show to teachers certain elements 
constituting real mastery of subjects which they 
have perhaps entirely overlooked in their pre- 
sentations. They thereby assist in rounding out 
teachers' ideas of what constitutes effective in- 
struction. 

Precautions Necessary in Giving 
Standard Tests 

In order that the results obtained when using 
standard tests, be comparable within a system 
and with results obtained in other systems, cer- 
tain precautions are necessary when giving them. 

1. Examiners must thoroughly understand the 
nature of the tests they give and the purpose for 
giving them. Practicing upon associates, to see 
the precautions necessary and to avoid making 
blunders, destroying the validity of the results, 
might be advantageous. 



80 Supervision of the 

2. Conditions under which the tests are given 
in different classes must be kept as nearly alike 
as is possible. Tests given at the same time of 
day and by the same person make for more ac- 
curate comparisons. 

3. Directions accompanying tests should be 
followed explicitly and with no personal contribu- 
tions of the examiner. 

4. Excitement or over-anxiousness on the part 
of the pupils should be avoided as such often 
works to their disadvantage when the papers 
are rated. 

5. If the test is for the purpose of helping to 
judge the teacher's success, the teacher should be 
made famihar with the test, its purpose and how 
the data collected can be of use to the teacher, 
as well as to the supervisor. 

Teachers' Records 

The supervisor will wish to have the teacher 
keep a number of records. The following list is 
suggestive of a number that are important: 

1. Requisitions for supplies and material. 

2. Record of new equipment and that for re- 

placement. 

3. Record of certain supplies used and the 

pupil-hours devoted to the use of these 
supplies. 

4. Inventory of equipment. 

5. Inventory of materials and supplies. 



special Subjects 81 

6. Material bill and project rating card. 

7. Daily attendance of pupils. 

8. Class record of grades given by teacher. 

9. Daily inventory of pupil equipment. 

The first six of these records will be discussed 
on other pages. 

The record of daily attendance of the pupils 
hardly needs discussion, as there is no need of 
having any different scheme for keeping the at- 
tendance in classes of special subjects than in 
other classes. In all probabihty, the supervisor 
will wish, either out of choice or necessity, that 
his teachers use the same book that others in 
the school system are using. At any rate the 
market affords a number of good styles. 

There is a variety of forms for recording the 
grades of the pupils from week to week, month 
to month, day to day, or project to project, as 
the case may be. In the section deahng with 
department records, is shown a material bill 
which also makes provision for grading the draw- 
ing and written work of the pupil done while 
the project is in process as well as grading the 
work upon the project itself. Forms, similar to 
this and more adapted for use in other special 
subjects, may be easily devised. 

In Fig. 20 is shown a simple record sheet for 
listing the grades of the pupils for each month. 
The record on the material bill, just explained, 



82 



Supervision of the 






pcob 



a^ 



a^ 



u 



O 
O 

CO 






! 








































m 
i 








































i 






































< 

§ 


X 






































i 






































i 






































a 






































< 

5 








. 
































2 











































1 








































g 








































CO 








































9 








































§ 












































special Subjects 



83 



SCHOOT. 


QUARJEreiY EEPORJ 

PIIRI.IC '^CWOOL.^ 
INDUSTR,IAL ART5 DEPARTMEMT 

cSUR.IRr.T CLASS TEATHIB!?. 




YEAR, 
DATE- TO DATE- TO 




\^o 


PUPILS ^/m/m/myAW/wm/m/^ 


( 
































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































E=ExcetlGnt- G-^Goocl F-Fair P--Poor Z.=Fa\ture 





Fig. 21. 

should be very helpful when making our monthly 
grades for the pupils. In Fig. 21 is shown a type 
of record sheet in which the grade is qualified by 
certain terms that express rather definitely why 
a pupiFs grade is as it is. Though this record 
requires more work of the instructor, it has many 
advantages. In the first place, it will help the 
teacher in analyzing and judging more carefully 
the different phases of pupil ability with the re- 
sult that the marks are more representative of 
the pupil's effort and progress. It is one thing 
to tell the pupil, parent, supervisor or the super- 
intendent that he (the pupil) is ^^poor'' and give 



84 Supervision of the 

no qualifications and an entirely different thing 
to say that his average is ^^poor'^ due to a low 
degree of skill and little aptitude for the work. 
He may rank fairly high in initiative, attentive- 
ness and application and yet not earn a good 
grade due to deficiencies in these other two im- 
portant particulars. Such a condition may show 
that though the pupil made an honest effort in 
class, he found himself handicapped by a goodly 
amount of physical awkwardness, lack of native 
ability for the particular kind of work, or that for 
some similar reason, he finds himself ^^not at 
home'^ in it. A record like this made quarterly 
would not place undue hardships upon the teacher 
and would help him to recognize the varying 
abilities of pupils for purposes of better instruc- 
tion and vocational guidance. At the bottom of 
the card and to aid the teacher, might be written 
brief definitions of these different phases of 
ability. 

The last item in the list above, the daily in- 
ventory of pupil equipment, may or may not be 
deemed necessary. When the equipment is fur- 
nished by the pupil, as is the case in mechanical 
drawing and other special subjects in some schools, 
the responsibiUty of the school is that of providing 
a safe place for closeting it. No responsibility 
should fall upon the school in case the pupil fails 
to properly put away his equipment, except as it 



special Subjects 85 

is the duty of the teacher to encourage good 
habits of economy and orderKness. In a case Uke 
the above no daily inventory would be needed. 

Where the equipment is very small in amount, 
or at least is not large in amount, and is used in 
classes in charge of one teacher only, this teacher 
can have the equipment laid out in a certain 
order by each pupil for inspection previous to the 
class work. Only a very short time will be neces- 
sary to check up on the whole class. The pupils 
should be expected to call attention to any irreg- 
ularities in their equipment at the beginning of 
the period, for otherwise, if it is not noted at this 
period but is noted at the beginning by another 
pupil, the first pupil would naturally be the one 
held responsible for the irregularity. 

Where, however, the equipment is used by 
pupils in charge of different teachers, reliable 
records and less friction will result by having each 
student fill out an inventory sHp whenever his 
equipment is not found in the proper shape at 
the beginning of a period. This slip may well in- 
clude the name of each article and the amount 
or numbers of each article. It should be so ar- 
ranged that the pupil can check the item in a 
blank space opposite, in case there is an irregu- 
larity in the condition of the equipment. The 
pupil should also indicate the nature of the 
trouble, sign his name on the card and hand it 



86 



Supervision of the 



to the teacher at the beginning of the period. In 
case the equipment is in the proper shape, no sHp 
need be made out. Such a system automatically 
checks against the individual causing the trouble, 
for, unless he notes trouble with his equipment 
at the beginning of the period and signs a card 
explaining the trouble, he is held responsible for 
any irregularities found at the beginning of the 
following period. The following form for indi- 
vidual bench woodworking equipment is sug- 
gestive (Fig. 22): 



DAILY INVENTORY i BENQl UXJDWRKING EQUMEliT 

c^HOOI. cSTIFLTFTT TfAfHH? 






NO. 


NAn£ -f ARTiaE- 


CHECK 


REMARKS 




cJACK PLANE- 
SMOOTH PLANE 
MASKING GAGE: 
TRY SQUARE: 
5CREW DRIVER 
ETC. 






PUPTI'..*^ NftMF: T^ATF: 



Fig. 22. 

Purchasing and Distribution 

Methods, used by supervisors for the pur- 
chasing and distributing of stock, material and 
suppUes, vary considerably. The principal ele- 
ments to take into consideration in determining 
the method are two: the subjects supervised and 



special Subjects 



87 



the nature of the course of study for these subjects. 
Drawing and art courses, for instance, make use 
of materials and supplies which can be purchased 
ready for use, are standard in size and can be 
easily stored, while woodworking courses of a 
flexible nature require material varying in form 
and size. 

Any method for purchasing and distribution 
can be commended only when it demands an 
economical use of time, energy and money, while 
still it provides for a dependable checking up of 
the quality and amount of stock and supplies 
received. 

INVENTORY ani 2£C02D 



r 



-RECEIVED - 



MATERIAL ^^-^^^ ^^LM^»^ 
DISTRIBUTED - 



^r 



A 



ON HAND 



DATE AMOUNT TOTAL 



NAME 



SCHOOL DATE AMOUNT I AMOUNT 



'^'^l 1 ■^'^ 



^^«^^ 



^ t.fi. 



%iKylU^ 



S^^^.l 



^ 



a js- 



■iU. 



¥^ 



^f 



jki- 




Fig. 23. 

Each school should have its storeroom or 
storerooms for the special subjects suppHes, and 
where there are several schools in the city, a cen- 
trally located storeroom may be advantageous. 
Each place should be systematically arranged with 
proper place for each kind of material or supplies. 
As a check upon the disposal of the supplies and 
as an aid to the supervisor in knowing when and 



88 Supervision of the 

what to purchase, there should be a record of all 
material taken to and from the central store- 
room. An example of an inventory and record 
sheet prepared for, this purpose is shown in Fig. 
23. It will be noticed that there is provision for 
recording the amount of a particular type of ma- 
terial purchased, the amount distributed to the 
different school or teachers and the amount still 
remaining in the storeroom. These forms can be 
placed on file in the supervisor's office or in the 
storeroom and in alphabetical order, or one for 
each kind of material may be tacked on the shelf 
or some other place near the material. Such a 
sheet tells at a glance just where a particular 
kind of material has gone and how much still 
remains on hand. For standard supplies, bought 
in fairly large lots and stored for use by different 
teachers, this scheme for recording the material 
is very helpful. 

It is possible, where fixed courses of study are 
followed in woodworking, metal working and sim- 
ilar studies, to prepare much of the stock outside 
of school hours. It is not unlikely that, even for 
a flexible course, certain materials will be used in 
definite sizes so that these items, though not in 
this form when purchased, may be gotten ready 
outside of the class period so that the work in 
class may be handled more speedily and satis- 
factorily. 



special Subjects 89 

It may be questioned whether such a task 
should belong to the teacher. It is thought that 
he may be of more service to the system by devot- 
ing his energies to bettering the abilities of his 
pupils, allowing cheaper labor to perform such 
work. 

Where it is known in advance just in what 
shape and size stock should be, plans can be made 
to have the janitors devote some of their extra 
time to such work during the summer or on 
Saturdays. Some supervisors use this oppor- 
tunity to provide needy boys, advanced in age 
and skill, with work and money during their spare 
hours. In other school systems, a school car- 
penter or cabinetmaker devotes enough time to 
this work to keep the classes supplied. Much of 
this material can be stacked or pocketed in store- 
rooms and records can be kept, as explained in a 
previous paragraph. 

The supervisor should be able and should ex- 
pect to allow the various teachers to inspect and 
check up any of the ordinary materials and sup- 
plies which come direct to these teachers from the 
purchasing place. In another section are dis- 
cussed methods of requisitioning supplies from the 
supervisor. Such material, as is ordered especially 
because of the flexibility of the course of study, 
should not need to go through the hands of the 
supervisor from the purchasing point, if the teachers 



90 Supervision of the 

are made responsible for accepting and prop- 
erly inspecting it. Again it is to be noted that 
the methods used will depend primarily upon the 
subject matter and the course of study. 

Rating Teachers 

The estimate of the efficiency of a teacher 
should depend upon two large considerations. 
One has to do with the teacher's understanding 
of the principles underlying good method, 
his acquisition of the skill and technique of 
teaching/ his accumulation of the essential informa- 
tion, and his ability to analyze teaching conditions 
and provide means for meeting their needs. The 
other is that of noting the results of the teacher's 
work by evaluating the attainments of the pupils 
in the studies under him. 

Basing conclusions solely on the first consider- 
ation might not yield accurate results, for, though 
a person might obtain the proficiency demanded 
in those particulars included in the first consider- 
ation, he may make such an effort in doing so 
that he would not get the required results in pupil 
attainments. Likewise, estimating the worth of 
a teacher simply from the results of pupil attain- 
ments is not necessarily reliable, for there may be 
conditions existing in the pupil personnel of the 
class, or other conditions out of control of the 
teacher that make his value to the school seem 



special Subjects 91 

extremely low if judged simply on the basis of 
pupil attainments. 

The writer has in mind one teaching condi- 
tion where a class in woodworking was made up 
of pupils who had had no previous training in the 
use of woodworking tools and pupils with consider- 
able experience in woodwork. There were in the 
class pupils from the grades and pupils from the 
first, second and fourth year high school classes, 
all mixed up. They were perforce to be taught 
by one instructor in the same class and during 
the same period, and that period was only one 
hour long. As a further note, it should be added 
that in this shop, the acoustics were such that 
when the surfacer was used to plane a fairly broad 
board, there was such a roar that, even though 
the teacher shouted at the very top of his voice, 
he could not hear himself. 

The mere statement of such a condition is 
sufficient to illustrate the fact that the estimate 
of the worth of a teacher based upon pupil at- 
tainments alone, will not necessarily furnish reli- 
able results. 

Until rather recently, the rating of teachers 
has been based upon subjective impressions gained 
by those responsible for the rating. But in the 
last few years, as a result of the opinions of many 
that a more scientific measurement would be of 
value, a number of scales have been developed. 



91 Supervision of the 

None of them could be called ideal in every re- 
spect. In fact; there is a noticeable lack of agree- 
ment among educators as to the advisability of 
using such scales. 

However, whether teachers be rated by using 
a scale, or whether action as to their promotion, 
transfer, increase in salary, etc., be based upon 
the findings resulting from the use of the scale, 
the analysis of teaching qualifications as afforded 
by a scale very carefully drawn up and standard- 
ized is a valuable aid to those who have to decide 
matters of relative efficiency and value of the 
teachers under their charge. This is especially 
true when the scale has been tested by submit- 
ting it to a very large number of executives 
having to pass upon the worth of teachers. 

If a scale is used only as a memorandum of 
qualities to be considered and of the relative im- 
portance of these qualities in judging the teacher, 
it is bound to be helpful. It is highly improbable, 
if not impossible, that an executive may justifiably 
feel that he has made a fair and accurate estimate 
of a teacher if he has not, as a reminder at least, 
a list of points to be considered and their relative 
importance. The simplest, yet thoughtfully ac- 
curate judgment will necessitate a decision as 
to many points which differ considerably, per- 
haps, in relative importance. 



special Subjects 



93 



FIG. 24-A 

TENTATIVE FORM FOR A TEACHER RATING SCALE FOR 

USE OF SPECIAL SUPERVISORS 



Report of the estimate on who teaches 

at School. 



Degrees of Ability 



Date, 
Ranges 



Very superior, 
Superior, . . 
Average, . . 
Poor, .... 



5 
4 
3 
2 



Very superior, 
Superior, . . 
Average, . . 
Poor, . . . 



161 to 200 inc. 
121 to 160 inc. 

81 to 120 inc. 

80 and less. 



Teacher's 
Score 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


Weighted 




I. TEACHING ABILITY: 








1. Mastery of Essential Infor- 








mation, 




3 




A. Know subject-matter, 








B. Knowledge of related in- 








dustries. 








C. Good workman himself, 








D. Knowledge of care of ma- 








chinery and equipment. 








2. Mastery of Method, .... 




3 




A. Planning lessons. 








B. Demonstrations. 








a. Choice. 








b. Skill. 








C. Application. 








a. Individual needs. 








b. Generalizations. 








D. Selection and Adaptations 








of devices. 








E. Test and Evaluate Pupil 








Attainments. 









94 



Supervision of the 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


Weighted 




a. Real tests of ability. 








b. Distribution of marks. 








c. Use of tests to locate de- 








ficiencies. 








3. Ability to Organize, .... 


. 


2 




A. Courses of Study. 








a. Cover the field pro- 








gressively. 








b. Meet individual needs. 






. 


c. Get correlations. 








B. Teaching Devices. 








4. Discipline, 


. . 


2 


, 


A. Pupil's Attent'n to Teacher 








B. Pupil's Attent'n to his w'k . 








C. Pupil's Promptness in 








meeting obHgations. 








5. Management^ 


. . 


2 




A. Records. 








B. Economy in 








a. Requisitioning Supplies 








and Equipment. 








b. Use of Supplies and 








Equipment, 








6 Pride in 




2 




\J* ^. M. XVAVy AAA «••••••»• 

A. Arrangement of Equip- 




ment, Supplies, Exhibits, 








etc. 








B. Care of Tools and Equip- 








ment. 








11. CONSTRUCTIVE ABILITY: 








1. Personal, 




3 


, 


A. Self-Confidence. 








B. Initiative. 








C. Systematic. 








2. Social, 


V 


1 




A. Community Activities. 




B. School Activities. 









special Subjects 



9S 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


WeiVhted 




3. Educational, 




2 




A. Further Study. 








B. Activity in Educational 








Meetings. 








C. Own Productions. 








III. MORAL STABILITY: 








1. Personality, 




2 




2. Industry, 




1 




3. Habits (influencing pupils or 








associate teachers), . . 




1 




4. Dependency, 




1 




A. Carry out instructions. 








B. Promptness and Dispatch. 








5. Leadership, 




2 




Approachableness, 




2 




6. A. Superiors. 








B. Associates. 








C. Pupils. 








7. Optimism, 




1 




IV. PHYSICAL STABILITY: 








1. Health, 




1 
1 




2. Physical Endurance, .... 




3. Personal Appearance, . . . 




2 




V. PUPIL ATTAINMENTS: 








1. Class Ability as shown by 








Standard Tests, . . . 




3 




2. Class Ability as shown by 








Critical Inspection of 








Results of Class Work, 


• • 


3 




Totnl Score (add third column) 









Report made by 
Official position . 



96 Supervision of the 

Another strong argument in favor of having 
a Hst or an analysis of teaching quahfications is 
that, with such a Hst in the hands of the teachers 
themselves, they have a good chance to see what 
qualifications are expected of them. The result 
is that, with such a guide before them, they may 
be expected to strengthen themselves. 

The above arguments are sufficient to make it 
seem desirable that an illustration of a scale be 
shown here. The pros and cons as to making full 
use of the scale by assigning quantitative estimates, 
either numerically or otherwise, to the various 
abilities of individual teachers, will not be dis- 
cussed. Suffice it that the method for making 
complete use of the scale illustrated, are pointed 
out, so that those interested may form their own 
opinions as to the degree to which such a scale 
can be of practical use. 

Believing that most of the scales so far devised 
were not in th€ best form for use in connection 
with teachers of the special subjects, but were 
made for use in connection with ^^ general teach- 
ing,'^ the scale shown in Fig. 24- A was drawn up 
by the author. 

Not feeling competent to judge the relative 
importance of various qualities that together make 
a strong teacher, a similar analysis was submitted 
to a number of supervisors and principals. Rela- 
tive weights were not given on the blank, but the 



special Subjects 97 

officials were asked to give their opinions as to 
the relative importance of the qualities listed as 
1, 2, 3y 4, etc., in the scale. From the data, thus 
obtained, it was expected that fairly rehable rela- 
tive values, representing the majority of opinions, 
could be assigned each of these topics. 

The nature of the replies received bears strong 
evidence of the need of these analyses. There was 
a deplorable lack of agreement as expressed in the 
opinions of these officials. 

Some thought these various qualities to be of 
the same importance, with the exception of a very 
few which were judged to be about 5/6 as im- 
portant as the rest. One supervisor expressed an 
opinion that one of these qualities was twenty 
times more important than certain five others in 
the list. In fact there was little agreement as to 
the relative importance of these numerous teach- 
ing and teacher qualifications. Such a condition 
indicates that- there may be a decided lack of 
common understanding among executives, as to 
what is essential for successful teaching. If such 
is the condition over the country, then a standard- 
ized analysis of teaching qualifications and their 
relative weights would help prevent the injustice 
that may be done teachers in recommending trans- 
fer, dismissal, promotions, etc., with opinions 
based upon about as many standards as there are 
opinions. 



98 Supervisicn of the 

Use of the Scale 

In the middle column in Fig. 24- A are figures 
which express the relative importance of the vari- 
ous qualities numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. For ex- 
ample ^^ Mastery of Essential Information'^ which 
has a relative weight of 3 is considered 3 times 
more important than ^^ Social Constructive Abil- 
ity '\ which has a weight of only 1. (These 
figures as printed here are arbitrary as they are 
based upon the replies received from less than 100 
supervisors and principals in the east and middle 
west. To get standardized relative weights, the 
opinions of several hundred, or even thousands, 
of our best officials having to pass upon matters 
of teacher worth would be necessary.) 

Near the top of the scale is a table headed 
^^ Degrees of Abihty '^ and to which arbitrary values 
have been assigned. In using the scale, each qual- 
ity numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., has a degree of abiHty 
assigned to it according to the ability which the 
teacher being estimated upon is judged by the 
supervisor to have. For example, if the opinion 
is that the teacher is ^S'^ery superior '^ in his 
^^ Mastery of Essential Information'' the value 
5 would be placed opposite this quality and in 
the first column. This value is now multiplied 
by the expression of relative importance, or weight 
value for this quafity (in this case 3), and 



special Subjects 99 

the total is placed in the third column. Other 
qualities are treated similarly. 

Before going farther, it is necessary to ex- 
plain how the table called ^^ Ranges'' was con- 
structed. This table is shown near the top of the 
scale also. 

Were a value of 5, ^^very superior", assigned 
to each of the 21 qualities and multipHed by their 
respective weights, a total of 200 would result. 
This total would represent the greatest number 
of points that a teacher, perfect in every quality, 
could obtain. If a value of 4, ^^ superior'' be 
assigned to each quality and multiplied to their 
respective weight-s, a total of 160 would result 
and would represent the greatest number of points 
that a teacher ^^ superior" in every respect, could 
obtain. It, therefore, seems justifiable to say that 
a teacher who is given a total score falling between 
161 and 200 inclusive, could be called a '^very 
superior" teacher, for none of these scores could 
be gained by teachers who had quality ratings 
of '^superior" or less. The table ''Ranges" repre- 
sents the application of the same procedure to 
each of the other ''degrees of abihty". 

In Fig. 24-B is shown how this scale is used. 
The sum of the totals given in the third column 
amounted to 145 points, classing the teacher as 
a "superior" teacher. 



100 



Supervision of the 



FIG. 24-B 

TENTATIVE FORM FOR A TEACHER RATING SCALE FOR 

USE OF SPECIAL SUPERVISORS 



Report of the estimate on . 
Mech. Drawing .at. . . 



J. C. Moore 



who teaches 



Degrees of Ability 



Park Street School. 

Date, . . . 5/19/1921 . . . . 
Ranges Teacher's 
Score 



Very superior, 
Superior, . . 
Average, . . 
Poor, ... 



Very superior, 
Superior, . . 
Average, . . 
Poor, . . . 



161 to 200 inc. 
121 to 160 inc. 

81 to 120 inc. 

80 and less. 



145 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


Weighted 




I. TEACHING ABILITY: 


, 






1. Mastery of Essential Infor- 








mation, . 


5 


3 


15 


A. Know subject-matter. 








B. Knowledge of related in- 








dustries. 








C. Good workman himself. 








D. Knowledge of care of ma- 








chinery and equipment. 








2. Mastery of Method, . .' . . 


3 


3 


9 


A. Planning lessons. 








B. Demonstrations. 








a. Choice. 








b. Skill. 








C. AppHcation. 








a. Individual needs. 








b. Generalizations. 








D. Selection and Adaptations 








of devices. 








E. Test and Evaluate Pupil 








Attainments. 









special Subjects 



101 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


Weighted 




a. Real tests of ability. 








b. Distribution of marks. 








c. Use of tests to locate de- 








ficiencies. 








3. Ability to Organize, .... 


2 


2 


4 


A. Courses of Study. 








a. Cover the field pro- 








gressively. 








b. Meet individual needs. 








c. Get correlations. 








B. Teaching Devices. 








4. Discipline, 


3 


2 


6 


A. Pupil's Attent'n to Teacher 








B. Pupil's Attent'n to his w'k. 








C. Pupil's Promptness in 








meeting obligations. 








5. Management, 


2 


2 


4 


A. Records. 








B. Economy in 








a. Requisitioning Supplier 








and Equipment. 








b. Use of Supplies and 








Equipment, 








G. Pride in 


4 


2 


8 


A. Arrangement of Equip- 




ment, Supplies, Exhibits, 








etc. 








B. Care of Tools and Equip- 








ment. 








II. CONSTRUCTIVE ABILITY 








1. Personal, 


4 


3 


12 


A. Self-Confidence. 








B. Initiative. 








C. Systematic. 









102 



Supervision of the 





Estimated 


No. Times 


Totals 




Ability 


Weighted 




2. Social, 


3 


1 


3 


A. Community Activities. 




B. School Activities. 








3. Educational, 


3 


2 


6 


A. Further Study. 








B. Activity in Educational 








Meetings. 








C. Own Productions. 








III. MORAL STABILITY: 








1. Personality, 


3 


2 


6 


2. Industry, 


4 


1 


4 


3. Habits (influencing pupils or 








associate teachers), . . 


4 


1 


4 


4. Dependency, 


5 


1 


5 


A. Carry out instructions. 








B. Promptness and Dispatch. 








5. Leadership, 


3 


2 


6 


6. Approachableness, 


4 


2 


8 


A. Superiors. 








B. Associates. 








C. Pupils. 








7. Optimism, 


5 


1 


5 


IV. PHYSICAL STABILITY: 








1. Health, 


3 

3 


1 
1 


3 


2. Physical Endurance, .... 


3 


3. Personal Appearance, . . . 


5 


2 


10 


V. PUPIL ATTAINMENTS: 








1. Class Ability as shown by 








Standard Tests, . . . 


4 


3 


12 


2. Class Ability as shown by 








fe-B#*^ Critical Inspection of 








^ i ' P Results of Class Work, 


4 


3 


12 


P^^l^ 










1 




Total Score (add third column) 




1 

1 


145 



Report made by . . . D. E. Hall 

Official position . . Supervisor Industrial Arts 



special Subjects 103 

If a supervisor were to use such a scale with a 
view to recommending promotion, increase in 
salary, transfer, etc., he would not be justified in 
simply taking the total for the basis for his recom- 
mendations, for he might be making use of onty 
part of the information furnished by the scale. 

The score must be qualified by inspection of 
the different parts of the scale. For example, let 
us suppose that a certain teacher's score indicated 
that he had ^^ average ability '^ as a teacher, but 
that investigation of the different topics of the 
scale showed that he was rated low in some re- 
spects, but rather high in certain others. Let us 
further assume that the supervisor was asked to 
recommend a teacher for transfer to a certain re- 
sponsible position, where the strong qualities of 
this particular teacher were just what were needed 
and the weak points would not militate against 
him because of a different type of work. The 
issue is clear. Were the supervisor to judge by 
the score alone, he probably would not recom- 
mend this teacher for the position, though further 
consideration of the information afforded by the 
scale showed that in all probability he was well 
fitted for it. 

Promoting Public Interest in the 
Department 

Though the business of educating tlie pubHc 
to the value of the work of the school and for their 



104 Supervision of the 

approval of new courses may be a function of the 
superintendencj^; the superintendent may expect 
aid from the supervisors. He may- obtain the co- 
operation of influential men and women and aid 
from the local newspapers and clubs, but he may 
call upon the supervisors to organize under his 
general direction, a publicity program for their 
individual departments. 

Though the work in a special department is 
very good, its success and growth depend, to a 
considerable extent at least, upon public knowl- 
edge and sanction of its activities and interest in 
them. 

This information may be transmitted to the pub- 
lic in other ways than merely through the words of 
the pupils in their homes. Wide-awake newspapers 
are always glad to get material for publication 
that is of as much interest to large numbers of the 
people as is the work of the schools. They are 
often willing to set aside a certain space with an 
appropriate heading for the news of the school. 
A regular schedule can be arranged so that differ- 
ent supervisors furnish material at stated times. 
News of interest to the public and suitable for the 
newspapers may include: special activities of the 
pupils; work being done along special lines upon 
certain projects for the home, school or community; 
an inspection trip or excursion, seasonal articles 
upon subjects about which the supervisor or his 



special Subjects 105 

teachers have expert knowledge and which not 
only show different phases of the field of instruc- 
tion in the department, but are also of interest 
and value as information for use by the public. 
Such articles may deal with home sewing, dyeing 
of cloth, special dishes of food, or consist of sug- 
gestions on arrangements of the dinner table for 
special seasonal occasions, suggestions about the 
home garden, farm crop production, refinishing, 
caning and upholstering old furniture, etc. News 
concerning the number of pupils finishing special 
courses and telling how the course proved a help 
to them, information as to new courses proposed 
or to be offered and the nature of the course, will 
enlighten the taxpayers as to the work in the 
schools and the use their money is being put to. 

Exhibits are as valuable a media of publicity 
as they are conclusive evidence of what is being 
done. They may consist of luncheons served by 
the domestic science class to members of a mothers' 
club. They may include a displaj^ of complete 
plans for modest homes made in an architectural 
class by pupils who, though they may never in- 
tend to be architects, may some da}^ wish to buy, 
remodel or build a home and will be greatly helped 
by such work. Similarly, posters, drawings, ele- 
mentary hand work, etc., may be exhibited in the 
school, stores and other public places for the pur- 
pose of informing and interesting tlie public in 
the work of the diffo]*(Mit (loi^ni'tmonts. 



106 Supervision of the 

Another medium of publicity is the familiar 
^^ visiting daj^'', when the parents are especially 
invited to view the work in the classes. Such 
visiting periods need not come often and the 
handling of the pubhc can be so arranged that the 
work in the classes need not be greatly interfered 
with. 

If teachers and supervisors would properly 
prepare themselves and accept available oppor- 
tunities to speak at clubs, parent meetings and 
similar gatherings, they could do much to educate 
the public concerning their work and promote 
interest in it. 

Judging the Efficiency of One's 
Own Supervision 

Just as the supervisor review^s the work of his 
several teachers to see wherein they are deficient 
and to what extent, so must he determine his own 
success and accomplishment as a supervisor, an 
organizer, an executive, a teacher and a leader, 
that he may develop into a more efficient and cap- 
able member of the supervisory force. 

Such a review calls for a quantitative analysis 
of his duties first and a qualitative study of each 
following. In Figs. 2, 3 and 4 are shown analyses 
of different phases of the supervisory task, which 
might be used as a basis for making a qualitative 
study. Taking such a topic, for example, as ^^The 



special Subjects 107 

Course of Study '\ the supervisor might ask him- 
self the following and similar questions: 
I. Was the course of study outlined for the 
past year well adapted to the needs of the 
the school system and for use for teaching 
purposes? 

A. How does it compare with courses used 
under similar circumstances or condi- 
tions in other systems? 

B. Does the work actually accomplished com- 
pare favorably with that planned and 
outlined? 

C. What do the teachers think of the course 
of study? 

1. Was the amount of subject matter out- 

lined too great or too small for the 
time allowed? 

2. Was the outline a real source of help 

in planning their work? 

3. Etc. 

D. Do the accomplishments of the pupils 
seem to have been satisfactorily influ- 
enced by the course of study? 

1 . How do class medians, as the result of 

s tandardtests, compare with those for 
the same subject and year in other 
systems? 

2. What evidence do you luive that pupils 

have been better fitted for succeeding 
experiences (either at work or in 



108 Supervision of the 

school) , as a result of having received 

the instruction based upon the outline 

given the teachers? 
3. What other evidence, showing the in- 

fluence,of the course of study, do you 

have? 
E. Etc. 

In a similar way, the supervisor can consider 
other phases of his work. He can turn to his rec- 
ords of teachers' meetings and consider what they 
have contributed; he can compare the later les- 
son plans of new teachers with their first plans 
and estimate his influence in helping them to 
develop good abihty for organizing their teaching 
and so on through the list of his duties, gaining 
from his own consciousness and the opinions of 
his teachers and associates, an understanding of 
the causes and the nature of his shortcomings, 
that he may increase his ability to act as a super- 
visor, thereby being of more service. 

The Supervisor and Vocational Guidance 

The supervisor must remember that we are 
still in the early and experimental stage in the 
development of. vocational guidance. The move- 
ment, however, is an important one and one in 
which he should keep well informed. 

Substantial progress in any such movement is 
always hindered by the crude experimentation of 
individuals, who wish to make a ^^ splurge'' and 
without the proper background of careful thought 



special Subjects 109 

and study on the problem. The supervisor must 
be a discriminator between good and bad practice. 
He must be keenly alert to new developments 
and open to conviction. But he can ill afford 
to ^^ swallow'' everything that sounds and looks 
good. He must ^^be shown'' either through his 
own careful thought and investigations, that of 
other competent officials, or through a combina- 
tion of the two. 

Whether it is wise to have a vocational coun- 
sellor or not, there is no question but what the 
supervisor has the opportunity to influence to a 
high degree the character and amount of the 
vocational intelligence developed in the pupils by 
the teachers. 

Information about the many occupations and 
professions, is perhaps, the best kind of vocational 
guidance we now have. We cannot dictate to 
pupils what work they shall take up, but 
it is possible that, through psychological tests, 
we can discover individual intelHgence levels and 
establish approximate intelligence levels for differ- 
ent occupations. Through comparison of indi- 
vidual intelHgence levels with occupational intel- 
ligence levels, we can at least show the '^dis- 
qualifications" of certain individuals for certain 
occupations. We can also get the pupils in 
touch with many experiences that will give them 



1 10 Supervision of the 

an understanding of the nature of various occu- 
pations, the abilities needed, the nature of the 
work, the opportunities afforded and not afforded, 
the dangers involved, etc. 

The following are suggestive of the many ways 
and sources that the supervisor may have his 
teachers make use of in developing vocational 
inteUigence on the part of their pupils: 

1. Literature, discussions and readings of various trades as to 

A. Age of effective entrance to the trade. 

B. Particulars concerning apprenticeship. 

C. Nature of the work. 

a. What does the work consist of? 

1. What is made? 

2. What tools, machines and materials are used? 

3. What mathematics, drawing, etc., is needed? 

b. Why or why not monotonous? 

c. Outside or inside work? 

d. Length of working day. 

e. Wages. 

D. Shortage in the trade. 

E. Opportunities for advancement in it. 

F. How does the school help to fit them for the occu- 

pation? 

2. Vocational talks by speakers from outside the 

schools and by teachers and pupils from within. 

3. Motion picture films. 

4. Reference books on vocations. 

5. Visits, under guidance, to factories, offices, shops, 

etc. 

6. Studies of the professions. 

A. Understanding of the work. 

B. The schooling necessary. 

C. The cost of preparation. 

D. Scholarships. 

E. Location of different professional schools. 

F. Ways of earning money at school. 



special Subjects 111 

G. Autobiographies of *-big men who put themselves 

through to success ^\ 
H. Competition in the various fields. 

a. The advancement to be expected. 

b. Progress in promotion. 
I. Salaries. 

Such information must be compiled with great 
care. It must be statistically accurate so far as 
possible and should not be subject to misleading 
interpretation on the part of pupils or parents. 



PART III 

THE SUPERVISOR'S DUTIES OF 
ORGANIZATION 



Organizing an Extended Course 
OF Study 

The following steps, or principles, may be 
followed in organizing an extended course of study : 

Step 1 — Establish a clearly defined aim or goal 
to be reached by the directed instruction. 

Step 2 — Determine all of the experience of a 
certain type needed by the individuals for their 
proper conduct in the particular sphere of activity 
for which they are to be fitted. 

In the sphere of activity of a printer, for 
instance, these experiences may be an under- 
standing of (1) rules for punctuation and sylla- 
bication, (2) the principle of harmony and balance, 

(3) methods of calculating paper weights and sizes, 

(4) the color theory of process engraving, (5) the 
composition and properties of good inks, etc. 
Or, they might include the development of skill 
in (1) making ready small forms, (2) feeding job 
presses, etc. Similarly in drawing, an experience 
may consist of getting a thorough understanding 
of form and tcchnic in connection with certain 
geometric figures, like the circle, the square, the 
oblong. 



114 Supervision of the 

Step 3 — Arrange these experiences in the order 
in which they should be given to the individual, 
making the convenience of instruction secondary 
in importance to the efficient instruction best 
suited to the needs of the individual. 

This step calls for a careful consideration of 
the order of the experiences, from the standpoint 
of (a) clearness and correlation of the elements of 
instruction, and (b) the application of the com- 
monly accepted principle that the least difficult 
and complex experiences should be first given a 
pupil, gradually progressing through the more 
difficult to the most difficult experiences necessary 
for his training. 

One must also devote careful thought to the 
choosing of those elements of difficulty which 
make one experience more complex than another 
and to the relative weight or importance given 
to each element in determining the complexity of 
an experience. 

Step 4 — Choose the means, methods, contacts, 
etc., that will be used to give the individual the 
experiences which, in accordance with Step 2, it is 
determined he should have and which will most effi- 
ciently develop in him the ability to meet his needs. 

By means, methods, contacts, etc., are meant 
such as for example: (1) an exercise or (2) an 
actual project or (3) observation of an expert 
workman, or (4) attention to a talk on science or 



special Subjects US 

theory, each contributing to certain experiences 
that will make the pupil more efficient because 
of skills, information, understanding, etc., acquired. 
The experiences that an individual requires are 
many and varied, but more varied still are the 
means, methods and contacts from which the 
best and most appropriate ones can be selected. 

Step 5 — Add to the organization obtained in 
the preceding steps such suggestions, references, 
cautions and helps as will be of value to the 
teacher in his interpretation and use of the out- 
lined course of study. 

As a rather concrete illustration of the use of 
some of the above steps, assume that it is desired 
to construct a course of study for the vocational 
subject, popularly called ^^ lathe work^\ the aim 
of which is to prepare individuals to efficiently 
conduct themselves as skilled lathe hands. 

The first step after determining the aim is to 
analyze the entire needs of an individual to serve 
as a thoroughly trained and productive worker 
in the capacity of a skilled lathe hand. This 
immediately raises the question of how and where 
this information can be obtained, and what will 
be the nature of it. Obviously, in a case like this, 
the information can best be obtained from a 
study of the situation in which the individual will 
be working, not only careful observation of what 
it appears the workman must do and know, but 



116 Supervision of the 

what men, expert as lathe hands or foreman over 
lathes, or as employers interested in production 
from lathes, say he must do or know. Such in- 
formation is called ^^ Trade Analysis'' and may 
include (1) a list of processes, tools and machines 
in the use of which the man should be skilled, (2) 
the trade terms which the workman should under- 
stand and use intelligently, (3) the various mathe- 
matical problems he should be able to solve, (4) 
the dangers and cautions he should be mindful 
of, (5) the drawing and design abihty needed for 
this work, (6) the knowledge he should have con- 
cerning materials, (7) the theories concerning pro- 
cesses which he should understand, etc., etc. 

The next step. No. 3, is to arrange these experi- 
ences in the order in which the pupils should receive 
them. It may well be assumed that, of those 
points just enumerated, there should be included 
in the first place some of the names (commonly 
called trade terms), of machines, processes and tools 
with which the pupil will first come in contact. 
Perhaps in the second place should come a dis- 
cussion of the theory of the first process which 
the pupil is to use, together with the precautions 
he must take and the dangers he must avoid in 
connection with the process. 

This brief illustration in connection with the 
discussion of the remaining steps as given in 
previous paragraphs, is sufficient to show the 
application of the five steps. 



special Subjects 117 

Aids in Formulating a Course of Study 

In formulating a course of study, the help 
and advice of others should be sought by the 
supervisor. Such aids might be: 

1. The opinions of special subjects teachers, 
taken as a group. 

2. The opinions of especially strong teachers. 

3. The opinions of others, charged with the 
duty of making out courses of study, as expressed 
in their writings and sayings. 

4. Conclusions derived from a study of school 
surveys, or reports of educational administrators. 

5. Examination of courses of study in other 
subjects, fields and schools. 

Trade Analysis and the Course of Study 

In connection with the discussion following 
Step 5 in the section on ^^ Organizing an Extended 
Course of Study '^ mention was made of trade 
analysis, what it consists of, and, in a general 
way, as to how to make a trade analysis. A detailed 
discussion of trade analysis would seem out of place 
here but the following forms are suggestive of those 
that can be devised and used in tabulating and re- 
cording the information gathered in an analysis: 
trade analysls 

Form 1 



THE TRADE IS PRINTING. 



List of Jobs in the trade is: 
1 — Proof Reading 



118 



Supervision of the 



2 — Distribution. 
S^— Feeding Press. 

4r—EtC. 

5— 

6— 
7— 
8— 
9— 
10— 



TRADE ANALYSIS 
Form 2 



TRADE IS CABINET MAKING. 



List of operations in Job No. 9— MORTISING WITH MACHINE. 

1^— Choose proper chisel. 

2 — Fasten chisel in place. 

3 — Adjust table for height. 

4 — Adjust side movement of table. 

5— Etc. 

6— 

TRADE ANALYSIS 
Form 3 



TRADE IS LATHE HAND. 

Job is No. 2— ROUGHING CYLINDER. 



The mathematics related to the job is 



For 

Determination 
of 


By 

special method 
or device 


and to 

the accuracy 

of 


1 — Dia. of cylinder 

2 — Length of cylinder 

3— Etc. 

4— 

5— 


callipers 
steel rule 
etc. 


I /WO inch 
1/32 inch 
etc. 



special Subjects 



119 



TRADE ANALYSIS 
Form 4 



TRADE IS CABINET MAKING. 
Job is No. II— FINISHING. 



The trade judgment needed in performing this job 



i 

Use of trade judgment 


in operation of 


1 — As to length of time bejore 


allowing filler to dry. 


rubbing filler off. 




2 — As to appropriate color and 


choosing proper finish. 


kind of stain. 




3— Etc. 


etc. 


4— 




5~ 





TRADE ANALYSIS 
Form 5 



TRADE IS 

Job is No. 



The drawing related to the job. 



Kind of drawing 


Does man read 
or make? 


Purpose of 
drawing 


1— 
2— 
3— 
4— 




> 



120 



Supervision of the 



TRADE ANALYSIS 

Form 6 



TRADE IS LATHE HAND, 



Trade Science items are 

1 — Effect of mineral oil on belts. 

2 — Effect on tools of being over-heated while grinding. 

S—Etc. 

4— 

TRADE ANALYSIS 
Form 7 



TRADE IS EORGING. 



Knowledge of stock items are 



1 

! Recognition of 
Material 


Working Properties 
of Material 


1 — Cast iron 

2- 

3- 

4— 


is brittle and cannot be forged. 



Own Working Program 

The supervisor, who conscientiously accepts 
the many duties and responsibilities that are 
usually accorded him, will find himself a busy man 
under the best of conditions. If he does not make 
a careful analytical survey of his whole field of 
endeavor and plan carefully and to the best ad- 
vantage the use of his time so as to conserve his 
energy, he will either neglect some phase of his 



special Subjects 121 

work or find that he is apparently swamped with 
work in the discharge of his duties. 

Either of these conditions will be detrimental 
to the best interests of the department and the 
personal satisfaction and contentment of the 
supervisor. In order to avoid such conditions 
the supervisor should plan a systematic working 
program. He should make a list of his daily, 
weekly and monthly duties, the approximate 
time needed for each and the appropriate time to 
perform each. This planning cannot be done 
without thought as to the relation of the super- 
visor's plan to that of the teachers, the principals 
and the superintendent. Dates for teachers' 
meetings, for instance, should be set only after 
having considered the plans of other officers, who 
also hold such meetings, in order that the time 
set will not cause conflictions or will not burden 
the teachers. The latter, it must be remembered, 
are subject to call for meetings held by other 
officers. Especially is this true of grade teachers 
who may be working with several supervisors, as 
well as a principal and the superintendent. 

In planning, the supervisor must take into 
account the fact that more of his time and atten- 
tion may be needed in some schools or classes than 
in others, for some teachers may be new or weak 
or for some other reason may need help in excess 
of what the others require. 



122 



Supervision of the 



< 

o 

p. 

CO 



«i 








C\2 



O O 
m n 



»-i cj 



60 

ro ro 



"o ^^ 



8to «o n 



special Subjects 123 

Personal conferences with teachers will be 
needed and desired and should be planned for 
with more thought to the convenience of the 
teachers than to that of the supervisor. The 
supervisor's program is more flexible than that of 
the teachers, though his duties may be more 
numerous and complex. Consequently a set time 
for these conferences should be planned and the 
teachers should know that at that time they may 
go to the supervisor for personal consultation. 

Office hours, open to any kind of caller, should 
also be arranged for, so that those having business 
with the supervisor and not belonging to the 
school system, may see him at certain times dur- 
ing the week. 

Not all of the supervisor's time can be given 
to others, or to executive duties for he needs 
time for thought, study and planning. He should 
set aside certain periods when he may devote 
himself to these activities, uninterrupted by others. 

The correspondence of a supervisor is generally 
irregular in amount and not so overwhelming as 
to require the setting aside of a certain time for 
that purpose, unless he is fortunate enough to 
have the help of a typist. However, regular at- 
tention to correspondence should be given, and 
if it cannot be taken care of during regular office 
hours, certain periods should be designated for 
that purpose. 



124 Supervision of the 

The duties mentioned above and other definite 
ones should not fill the daily program of the super- 
visor. Some time must be allowed for irregular 
matters that need attention and cannot be fore- 
seen, and for duties that sometimes require extra 
time and cannot be completed during the time 
set aside for them. 

After the supervisor has carefully thought 
over and arranged his list of duties and the time 
for discharging them, he should make out a written 
schedule to which he can easily refer. Such a 
schedule, or weekly working program, is shown 
in Fig. 25. A similar scheme, which has the ad- 
vantage of giving the supervisor a broader view 
of his plan of work, can be used for making a 
monthly program. 

Some periods may be fixed, week after week, 
for certain purposes, such as open office hours, 
office hours for personal consultation with teachers, 
or periods for planning and study. Other 
periods, however, should be flexible for attention 
to various duties, dependent upon changing needs 
and circumstances. 

Department Records 

Perhaps that old adage, a combined expression 
of quality and quantity, would indicate a good 
guiding principle to follow in organizing the de- 
partment records. The adage is this, ^^Good 



special Subjects 125 

enough what there are of them and enough of 
them such as they are'\ 

The purpose of this discussion is not so much 
to describe the exact nature of each kind of record 
needed, but rather to give general suggestions 
and points on the organizing of the records. 

There are several kinds of records quite neces- 
sary for the business-like conduct of a special 
department. There should be records of some 
kind showing where materials and supplies can 
be most advantageously purchased, records of 
recent important correspondence received and the 
answer to it, records of teachers' meetings and 
the distinct purpose of each. Besides these, there 
should be records of individual teacher ratings, 
a bibliography of books of professional interest 
to the supervisor and his teachers, records of 
supplies purchased and new equipment added, 
records of the visits to classes and the conclusions 
resulting from these visits, etc. 

It is obvious that, if all these records are to be 
kept, an orderly and systematic organization of 
them must be provided. Such organization must 
be as simple and yet as complete as possible for 
handling the necessary information so that the 
supervisor can find what he wislies, in the place 
where it shoukl be, when he wislies it, and with 
the least effort, loss of time and confusion. System 
conserves time and energy, improves the quality 



126 Supervision of the 

and adds to the quantity of work done, commands 
the respect of associates and makes for personal 
contentment. 

The card-record scheme is undoubtedly the 
best for keeping many of the records. There are 
several kinds of schemes, varying in cost, for 
fiHng cards. While it would be pleasant to have 
finely finished mahogany or quartered oak cab- 
inets of different sizes, it may not be a good 
poUcy to insist upon having them as metal files 
are very satisfactory, safer and less expensive. 
Pedagogically speaking, a card filing cabinet is 
a fine project for construction in an advanced 
cabinet making class in the school shops. The 
expense is comparatively small and the project a 
good one for advanced students. 

Plain or ruled 3'^ x 5'^ cards are very suitable 
for recording new books published, for Hsting 
supply houses from whom certain supplies can be 
purchased, for records of teachers' meetings held 
and topics discussed, and for many other facts. 
In Fig. 26 is shown a scheme that is suggestive 
of the many ways of indexing and recording. 
This one is simple and complete, and if cards are 
taken out or mixed, they are so numbered as to 
make it easy to return them to their proper places. 

For those records requiring more data, it may 
be well to have V x 6'' or 6'' x 9'' cards. At any 
rate cards of standard sizes should be used, wdth 



special Subjects 



127 




Fig. 26. 

only , as much variation in size as is necessary, 
that as much uniformit}^ as possible may prevail. 
Some records, such as for instance, teacher ratings 
or teacher requisitions for supphes, may be kept 
advantageously on printed forms, and in these 
cases the cards should be standard in size so as to 
fit standard cases or cabinets. An illustration of 
a form for teachers' requisitions for supplies is 
shown in Fig. 27. 



128 



Supervision oj the 



TEACHER'S REQUISITION for 5UPPLI 

DEPARTMENT «>/ INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

rSOiOOI.S 

CLASS 
TF^AfHFP /ir.HnnT r,PADF- 


ES 

NO 

DATF: 


WHEN NEED 


YI 


:AR 






AMOUNT 


MATER.IAL 


5IZE5 


COLGie 


REMARKS 
































OR-DERErD P.BrF.IVE.D DISTRINJTfD 

51GKBD SUPERVISOR. 



Fig. 27 

Material or stock bills are many and varied 
in form. A style, made of a good quality of paper 
and punched for filing, is shown in Fig. 28. This 
particular form was devised by the author for use 
in university classes, but an adaptation can easily 
be made for use in any class. It will be noticed 
that there is a provision on this form for rather 
complete checking of the pupils' work and pro- 
gress. The sketch for a project can be 0. K.'d 
by the teacher, (and a grade given if desired) before 
the pupil is allowed to go on with the next step of 
the work. There is also space for recording any 
written work that may be assigned in connection 
with the particular project being made. The 
space for remarks allows for recording the material 
wasted during the process of construction, or other 
notes that it is desired to make. The number of 
hours consumed on a project can be noted and 



special Subjects 



129 







n 








o 












THE U 
DEPART 


MIVERS 
WENT 

riNis 


ITY OF WISCONSIN 
OF MANUAL ARTS 






. 























T 


w 


L 


MATERIAL 


NO rr 


.RICE 


VALUE 


















i 


















- — 



































1 
















1 


















i 


































CK 


GB»D6 




FINISH 


— 


— 




DESIGN 1 
















WORKMANSHIP 


— 








WRITTEN 






— 






riNAl 












INSTRUCTOR TOT*t COST ! '] [ 



Fig. 2S. 





RECORD D^ SUPPLIES 

PI iFsi ir srnoi-)] s I 
riANUAL ARTi PEPT 

19_19 

TE-ACHER . * .SCHOOL.... ROOM DATf 






MATF,RIA1.:> 
oUPPLIEo 


o 

z: 

r. 






g 


1 


(J 


2 

or 


1 


(- 
to 
o 
<-> 


i 






TO! 
AMI 


HAL 
COST 


ISAMD- 

OF 
CLA55 


DATE 
-TO- 


§5 




■A 




S-^^^^jiJi^ 


1 


'V 


l.ve 


>• 


V 


.>fr 














^^ 


, 


kc 


Uc^ (s<t, 


w- 


/»/ 


Cf 


f^v 


































• ;-!* 


TxC-J^ 


»v 


if 


?».' 






















i—. 























— ^ 










^ 













-J 

















FiK 



130 Supervision of the 

used as a guide in estimating the efficiency of 
the pupil. 

This method of filing may not appeal to some 
teachers as the paper tears rather easily. On the 
other hand, the records are easily kept together 
and when completed, string can be tied through 
the holes forming a book-like bundle for future 
reference. A similar form can be printed on card- 
board and filed in a cabinet or in a wall rack 
specially designed and accessible to the students. 
This plan will permit students to use the cards 
without confusion until their projects are finished. 

Business correspondence concerning matters of 
considerable importance, should be filed and kept 
for several months at least, for ready reference. 
Answers to such correspondence should be made 
in duplicate. The duplicate should be clipped to 
the letter received and both filed. 

There are numerous styles of letter files. At 
present the most popular form is the vertical file, 
which consists of cabinets arranged to hold the 
letters in alphabetically or numerically lettered 
folders. A simple, handy and inexpensive file is 
the style which is made up to look something like 
a large book, but which is a box containing lettered 
leaves that form compartments. The usual plan 
is to file the letter according to some name that 
one would naturally think of in looking for the 
letter. Such a name may be the writer of the 



special Subjects 131 

letter, as for example ^^ Jones'', if the name Jones 
easily came to mind when thinking of the source 
of the letter. In case the letter has come from a 
firm or a school and the name of the firm or school 
is easy to recall and that of the person signing the 
letter is not, then the name of the firm or school 
should be the key for filing. In the case of ^^ Jones'' 
above, the letter will be filed directly behind the 
tab ^^J" in the file, keeping the correspondence 
with Jones together and all that with another 
correspondent whose name also may begin with 
^^J", together, each as a unit separate from the 
other as much as possible in the same compart- 
ment. The latest correspondence is usually placed 
towards the front in each unit, or nearer the tab 
than the older correspondence. 

Mention was made in a previous paragraph 
of other records which should be kept by the 
supervisor, and to which the same general princi- 
ples would apply. Detailed discussions of them 
will be found in other paragraphs in the sections 
on Executive Duties and Duties of Organization. 

New Courses and Installations 

The progressive supervisor will be watcliful 
for the necessity and desirability of changes and 
additions to courses, to housing facihties, to equip- 
ment, etc. More than any one else in the depart- 
ment, lie should bo looking into the future to 



132 Supervision of the 

see the trend of the times and the modifications 
and development necessary in his department. 
He must read of what others are doing and saying, 
and he must take advantage of any opportunity 
that is afforded to see what is being done in other 
places. He should aim to make himself susceptible 
to the impulses that are modeling the field of 
education in which he is working. Never will 
ideals be fully reached; no sooner will an educa- 
tional organization seem to be closely approxi- 
mating perfection, than someone sees where it is 
weak, and immediately the process of perfecting 
is repeated or continued. 

The supervisor, himself, must be looking for 
deficiencies in his own field, trying to see if the 
aims have been set broadly and sufficiently. He 
must aim to contribute, by the changes and im- 
provements which he initiates as a result of his 
thought and study, to the solution of the educa- 
tional problems confronting him. If the courses 
of study are such that the instruction is not 
functioning to meet the needs of those receiving 
it, the supervisor should be among the first to 
realize the situation, acknowledge it and make 
such changes as are necessary. Of course, in this 
connection he will seek the counsel and advice of 
his superintendent, who, presumably, will have a 
broader view of the educational field than does 
the supervisor. 



special Subjects 133 

Perhaps in no educational field is it more 
imperative that the supervisor watch the changing 
needs than in that of vocational education. Old 
agencies of training are disappearing, new de- 
mands are being made upon industrial training 
departments of schools, labor is becoming more 
divided and specialized. All of these facts mean 
that, if the schools are to continue to do the train- 
ing, old courses must be made over, new courses 
organized, new methods, organizations and equip- 
ment for handling instruction must be installed, 
etc. Someone must see these needs developing 
and initiate measures to take care of them. The 
supervisor is the man. 

An example of changing needs is afforded in 
connection with agricultural education for farm 
boys. A few years ago, their practical education, 
as given in the public schools, consisted mainly 
in learning the uses of the more common wood- 
working tools in making farm projects, but since 
the development of the science of farming, such 
work would hardly make a start at meeting their 
needs. Aims have changed, needs have become 
more numerous, methods have been developed, 
and we have courses for the study of farm machin- 
ery and its uses, courses on the construction of 
farm buildings, courses for testing soils, etc. 

What is true in regard to clianges in the trend 
of agricultural education is true in regard to 



134 Supervision of the 

industrial education and other special subjects 
courses. Drawing courses include more correla- 
tions than formerly, and they are more vitally 
connected with the daily life of individuals than 
they were; musical education has changed in 
character, and so on. All this goes to show that 
the supervisor must be conscious of the impulses 
tending to demand changes in his organization, 
if he wishes to have his department fulfill a large 
service. 

By analyzing the situation in which his pupils 
are expecting to work, he can determine their 
needs and what the aims of the instruction should 
be. By analyzing his established courses, he can 
determine to what extent they continue to meet 
the needs of the individuals or are in need of 
revitalizing changes. 

For a discussion that might be helpful in 
planning to change old courses and form new ones, 
the reader is referred to the section on ^^ Organizing 
a Course of Study'' in another part of the book. 

New Installations 

In planning for installations of industrial shop 
equipment and machinery, the supervisor must 
not only know how to submit specifications, make 
estimates and place orders, but he must also 
know what best to order. In direct relation to 
this, he will need to know how to plan installation 
and equipment arrangements. 



special Subjects 135 

The kind of equipment (i. e. lathes, saws, 
planer, etc.), will not be so difficult of determina- 
tion and will be based largely upon the available 
funds and the course of study. However, the par- 
ticular type of each kind of equipment, the best 
makes, the proper sizes, etc., are points not so 
easily decided upon and will depend to a large 
extent, upon the arrangement of the equipment. 
To dwell in detail upon the planning and installa- 
tion of school shop machinery and equipment 
would require in itself the space of half an ordinary 
volume and cannot be attempted here. It does 
seem fitting, however, to bring to the attention 
of the reader a few of the many problems to be 
solved. 

Any considerable installation in one or more 
school buildings requires that floor plans, showing 
the arrangement of machines, shafting, benches, 
lockers, tool cribs, stock rooms, etc., be drawn 
to scale. Plans drawn to the scale of }/2^ to the 
foot will be, in most cases, satisfactory. 

The arrangement will depend upon such factors 
as: (1) the source of natural light; (2) the space 
needed for the operation of machines, both for the 
operator himself and the stock that he is working 
upon in the case of some machines; (3) the type 
of power transmission, whether group or individual 
motor drive; (5) the accessibility of machines for 
care and repair; (6) the routing of stock through 



136 Supervision of the 

the machines; (7) the best provisions for the sus- 
pension of shafting, hangers, etc.; (8) the con- 
venience and accessibihty of stock and tool rooms, 
doors, lockers, etc.; (9) and other factors of safety, 
economy, etc. 

Besides a general layout of the arrangement of 
various equipment, there will be the task of deter- 
mining the type, size, etc., of it. A number of 
points are to be considered here. Not only must 
efficient and economical choices be made, but 
there must be an eye to the future needs and 
demands upon the department. Equipment, per- 
fectly satisfactory at first, may require replace- 
ment within a very few years, because it was 
purchased without due regard to possible later 
demands upon it. For instance, the shafting for 
immediate needs may be small in comparison to 
what would be necessary to transmit power to 
machines that may be added from time to time 
within a few years. Similarly, the shaft hangers 
may accommodate the largest pulley at first, but 
when certain new machines or a secondary shaft are 
to be added, it will be necessary to install a complete 
new set of shaft hangers. In many other ways, 
a low first cost may be turned into a loss, when 
considered from the point of view of adaptation 
over an extended period of time. 

Machines are made in different types suited 
to varying needs. The cost varies with the type, 



special Subjects 137 

and the latter should be chosen with due regard 
to the requirements of the school. Circular saws, 
for instance, are manufactured with and without 
power feed, and the choice of the type should 
depend not only upon the available funds, but 
also upon the effect upon instruction. There is 
httle justification for buying expensive equipment 
simply for the ^^ looks'' of a department or for 
convenience which does not further the efficiency 
of instruction or yield returns to the community 
without jeopardizing the efficiency of the in- 
struction. 

There are factors of safety to be considered 
in planning installations and these factors should 
be kept in mind when deciding upon the type 
of transmission, the arrangement of belting and 
the placing of guards for belts, machines, etc. 

It is not to be expected that the supervisor 
will have expert knowledge concerning the many 
details involved in shop installations, as discussed 
above, and there are sources of information to 
which he must refer. National and state educa- 
tional authorities publish bulletins which treat of 
some phases of this problem. The educational 
magazines contain articles written by experts on 
certain phases. Books like those on millwrighting 
and those serving as handbooks for engineers, 
contain much help. The catalogs of commercial 
houses and manufacturers often give much 



138 Supervision of the 

information, and the experiences of those who have 
had the task of instalUng equipments or have 
worked with various makes and types of machinerj^ 
and equipments should be sought. Some m.anu- 
facturers of certain hnes are glad to draw up 
plans showing arrangements of equipment, types 
best fitted for a particular situation, etc., if they 
are consulted. However, the plans thus obtained 
should be carefully examined and judged. In the 
case of choosing electric motors, it is best to rely 
strongly upon the advice of reliable manufactur- 
ers, for the points of consideration are so technical 
in nature that few supervisors can satisfactorily 
do more than furnish certain data for the manu- 
facturers. About the only alternative here will 
be that of getting the opinions and advice of an 
experienced engineer. 

Budgets 

There are tw^o reasons for having budgets. 
One is that the officials in charge of planning for 
the financing of a school system, may know^ of the 
needs of the special departments as estimated by 
the supervisor; the other is that the supervisor 
may know of the funds available for the needs of 
the department during a certain year. 

It is to be expected that when a department 
is headed by a competent supervisor who is guided 
by the counsel of a competent superintendent, the 
board of education will base its estimate of the 



special Subjects 139 

appropriation for the department largely upon the 
needs of the department as expressed by the 
supervisor, which indicates that the supervisor 
must make his estimate in advance of the ap- 
propriation. 

The budget might well be divided into four 
parts: (1) supplies, (2) equipment, (3) salaries, 
(4) incidentals. The last division may not include 
much, but it will take care of those expenses not 
easily classified under the other heads and will 
permit provision for such minor expenditures as 
may not be foreseen. If this division is qualified 
by detailed headings to indicate Hmited and legiti- 
mate purposes for the use of the money, few 
boards will object to it. Such incidental expenses 
may be those involved in transportation of equip- 
ment and supplies, wages for repairs, helping on 
installations, filing saws, etc., printing, etc. 

Estimating Supplies Necessary 

A few years ago the courses of study for the 
special subjects were rather formal in nature and 
included a limited list of projects from wliich a 
choice was made by the pupils, if indeed they were 
allowed any choice at all. Preparing budgets of 
supplies for such courses of study was rather 
simple as compared to making out the budgets 
for present-day courses of study in the special 
subjects. This especially is true because the 
courses are more flexible to meet the varying 



140 Supervision of the 

needs of individuals within a group and are 
thought to change more from year to year than 
they formerly did. 

There are three methods of estimating budgets 
for supplies. These may be given the following 
rather self-explanatory headings: 1. Statistical 
Method; 2. Hypothetical Method; 3. Method 
of Calculation from Experience. 

The person, undergoing his first experience as 
a supervisor, cannot make direct use of the third 
method given above, as he has had no supervisory 
experience. He will wish, however, to make his 
budget approximate his needs as closely as pos- 
sible. In case he uses a formal course of study, 
he will have several fairly good starting points 
for the budget; for (1) he will have a limited num- 
ber of projects to choose from; (2) he will know 
the approximate amount of material needed for 
each project, or he can at least figure the amount 
needed for each; (3) he can estimate reasonably 
close as to how many pupils he will have in each 
course. The last factor he can determine by find- 
ing the average attendance during past years and 
noting any particular reasons for the belief that 
the number may be increased or diminished the 
next year. Where it is required that certain 
courses of study be followed by pupils in certain 
grades, an idea of the number of pupils to be 
expected in the courses can be gained by finding 



special Subjects 141 

the number finishing the previous grades, adding 
to this the number that may be expected to come 
into the class from other sources and subtracting 
the number that may be expected to leave school 
as estimated from the school records for past 
years. Knowing the number of projects to be 
made, the amount of material to be used for each, 
and the number of pupils direct calculation of the 
amount of the budget can be made. Where the 
supervisor has no approximate idea of the number 
of projects that will be made in a course, because 
he has not himself taught it, he can get aid from 
the experiences of his teachers or other super- 
visors. 

The method just given above is considered 
as one form of the Statistical Method. Another 
form, which can be used and which more properly 
justifies the name is as follows: The supervisor 
obtains from some other source, e. g., another super- 
visor, a published account, or records in a school 
superintendent's oflfice, the data connected with a 
certain course of study similar to the one he de- 
sires to estimate upon. This data will consist of 
(1) the total cost of the materials used, (2) the 
number of pupils in the course, (3) the total num- 
ber of hours worked by each. By dividing the 
total cost by the product of the number of pupils 
times the number of hours the class as a whole 
worked, the cost per pupil hour can be found. 



142 Supervision of the 

The cost per pupil hour is the cost of the material 
needed for one pupil for one hour of work. As 
a concrete example, suppose that a class of ten 
pupils during 50 hours of work each, use S70 
worth of material. The cost per pupil hour ac- 
cording to the method above, would be $70 di- 
vided by (10 X 50) or 14 cents. If the supervisor 
will now multiply the number of pupils expected 
in a similar course of study by the hours each will 
work on the material and this product by 14 cents 
(the pupil hour cost) , he will have an approximate 
budget for material for that course. Though this 
method is only approximate, it does give the 
supervisor a basis to work upon that will 
increase his confidence during his initiatory ex- 
perience. 

This latter method is perhaps the best for use 
by an inexperienced supervisor, even if he does 
not have a formal course of study, for the amount 
of material used by an individual in a certain 
subject will not be greatly different for a formal 
course than for a flexible one, except as the variety 
of material may have an effect. 

The Hypothetical Method 

This method is the one followed where the 
inexperienced supervisor estimates the work 
which a student of average effort and ability 
may be expected to do and the material which he 
may use. Such a method would be used where 



special Subjects 143 

the course of study is quite free from formality 
and limitation. 

The supervisor, from his experiences, judges 
and lists the material that one type of pupil may 
use. Similarly he lists the amounts that it may 
reasonably be expected other types may use, 
meaning by types in this case, those who differ 
in their choice of projects and fields of particular 
interest. By adding the costs of the material in 
each list and dividing this sum by the number of 
lists, the average cost per pupil is estimated. By 
dividing this average cost per pupil by the number 
of hours to be devoted to the use of this material 
by each member of the class, the cost per pupil 
hour is obtained. This cost per pupil hour when 
multiplied by the product of the number of pupils 
expected in the course times the hours each wdll 
work, will yield an approximate budget estimate 
based upon a hypothetical case. 

The Method of Calculation from 
Experience 

This is the best method, but it can be used 
only by the supervisor who has had supervisory 
experience or who has the fortune to follow a 
supervisor who has left sufficient and proper data 
concerning past expenditures in the department. 
It consists in keeping from year to year accurate 
and detailed records of material and suppKes 
used. Right here it is well to note that the keeping 



144 



Supervision of the 



of these records is as much a duty and re- 
sponsibiHty of the teacher as that of the super- 
visor. Proper forms are shown here for the record- 
ing of data by the teachers. These forms are not 
burdensome to fill out and will be of great help to 
the supervisor. The latter should put full re- 
sponsibility upon the teacher for the recording 
of this data, as he will have enough work con- 
nected with the data after it is recorded. 

By keeping a record of the supplies used in 
each class, the number of students in these classes 
and the hours each works, or in other words, the 
total class periods expressed in hours, the cost 
per pupil hour can be determined at the end of 
each year and used as a basis for estimating the 
budget for the ensuing year. A form for this 
purpose is shown in Fig. 29. It should be printed 



INV ENTORy 9/^ SUPPLIES ON HA ND 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
DEP'T OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

TEACHER SCHOOL _____ 5UDJECT_ 



ElATE. 



MATERIAL 



AMOUNT 



C05T 



REMARKS 



Fig. 30. 



on paper or cardboard, about 8 by 11 inches in 
size, so that it may be filed in a letter file. Each 



special Subjects 



145 



TEACHER REQUISITION for I^PLACEME^T No 



-PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



TEACHER- 
WHEN WEEDED 



INDUST RIAL -ARTS DEPA R.TMENT 
GRADE 

SCHOOL CLA5S_ 

.SUBJECT .YEAR . 



.DATE_ 




TEACHER REQUI SITION fp- EQUIPMENT 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



TEACHER 

WHEN NEEDED 



I NDU5T R1AL ART5 DE PARTMENT 
GRADE 

SCHOOL CLASS— 

SUBJECT YEAR 



DATEr- 




I NVE NTORY SHEET TOOLS A^gp EQUIP MENT 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



DATE_ 



INDUSTRIAL -ARTS DEmRTHENT 
19— 19— 
-SCHOOL 



.ROOM. 



TEACHER. 



TOOLS 

AND 

EQUIP 



NO AS + NEW - LOST = ON 

PESi LAST THIS OR HAND 

INVrY YEAE BROKEN NOW 



TO 

DE 

ADDED 



REMARI^ 



FiRs. 31, 32 and 33. 



146 Supervision of the 

teacher should have one of these record sheets, 
and each time he makes out a requisition for 
suppHes on the form shown in Fig. 27, and be- 
fore he gives this requisition to the supervisor, 
he should record on the record sheet the number 
of the requisition and the other information called 
for. The number of pupils is also kept on this 
sheet. In Fig. 30 is shown a form for recording 
the amount of material and supplies on hand at 
the end of the year. From the record of the total 
cost of material used together with the inventory 
of the material on hand at the end of the j^ear, 
the supervisor can determine the value of the 
material used. Knowing the number of pupils 
and the pupil hours he can divide the cost of 
material used by the total number of pupil hours 
and can get the cost per pupil hour. 

On the record sheet each kind of material 
used should be written in the first column at the 
time when that material is first requisitioned. 
Any subsequent ordering of the same material 
should be recorded horizontally opposite the first 
order as shown in the case of sandpaper on the 
form. Of course, it is expected that each teacher 
will thoughtfully plan his requests for suppUes so 
that he has as few repeaters as is possible. 

Estimating Cost of Equipment 

Equipment may be classed under two heads: 
(1) that for replacement, because of loss or damage 



special Subjects 147 

or because the former equipment seems no longer 
to be satisfactory, and (2) new equipment not for 
replacement purposes, but for enlarging the 
amount of equipment. 

In Figs. 31 and 32 are shown forms for the use 
of the teacher in requisitioning each type of equip- 
ment. In Fig. 33 is an inventory sheet on which 
the teacher records all the equipment asked for 
and received during the year, as well as that 
which he wishes for the coming year. He also 
hands the supervisor a requisition for the equip- 
ment desired for the coming year. From these 
records the supervisor can determine the amounts 
of the different equipment needed for the follow- 
ing year. 

Of course, this matter of requisitioning is pre- 
ceded by a determination of the equipment best 
to order through conferences between the super- 
visor and the teachers. The supervisor has, from 
his consultations with the superintendent, an idea 
as to the policy for expenditures during the com- 
ing year. He and the teachers plan the propor- 
tions of equipment, and the teachers make out 
requisitions based on the conclusions formed at 
these conferences. These requisitions thus become 
a basis for the use of the supervisor in estimating the 
budget to be presented to the board of education. 

In the section under the head of ''New Course 
and Installations '^ was discussed the matter of 



148 Supervision of the 

choosing the equipment and the help that the 
supervisor can get. If the supervisor has the 
proper data and advice for the choice of the 
equipment and has, from his discussion with his 
teachers and the superintendent and from the 
requisitions of the teachers, a record of the amounts 
needed, the remaining step will be that of getting 
prices and quotations on the equipment. 

In order that no misunderstandings may arise, 
it is advisable to make definite specifications con- 
cerning the equipment. These specifications must 
be as simple and brief as possible and yet so clear 
and definite that all who read them will get the 
same understanding of what is wanted. Some 
kinds of equipment need more detailed specifica- 
tions than do others, which have become more or 
less standard or have been given certain names 
and numbers which are sufficiently explicit. For 
instance, a ^^ bell-faced nail hammer, A. E. Ham- 
mond No. 1'', is explicit enough and refers to a 
certain make, grade, size and type of hammer. 
Some other kinds of equipment need more data, 
as ^^Keen Kutter improved special ratchet bit 
brace to take square and round shank bits, 
equipped with roller bearings and having 12'^ 
sweep''. Equipment of the nature of machines 
generally require quite extensive specifications. 
Those for an engine lathe may be as follows: 
^^One 6' X 14'^ engine lathe, witli automatic 



special Subjects 149 

longitudinal and cross feed and including the fol- 
lowing equipment: large and small face plates, 
compound rests, change gears, adjustable top for 
screw cutting, gear guards, necessary wrenches 
and a double friction countershaft". 

These specifications are sent to those from 
whom bids are wished, and when the bids are re- 
ceived, they should be carefully checked up to 
see that the specifications have been followed by 
the bidders. The choice of place of purchase will 
then be recorded and the complete budget totaled 
to be ready for recommendation to the board of 
education. Where local firms can be given the 
business of the school to no disadvantage, it is 
perhaps good policy, in most cases, to let them 
have it. 

That part of the budget dealing with salaries 
hardly needs discussion, as it is a simple matter 
to list the proposed salaries of the teachers, once 
they have been decided upon and indicate the 
total amount necessary. Of course the matter of 
adjusting these salaries is not such a simple matter. 
The superintendent will usually take charge of 
this matter and make dictations based upon the 
salary schedule of the whole city system, though 
he will wish the opinions of the supervisor and 
his estimate of the comparative values of differ- 
ent teachers under his charge. Therefore, before 
the supervisor definitely lists in his budget, 



recommendations for salaries, he will confer at 
length with the superintendent. 

The items of the budget classed under ^^Inci- 
dentals'' might be those of printing, stamps; 
drayage, allowance for possible minor repairs, etc. 
As some unforeseen, small expenses are not un- 
common, it is well to list such an item so as to 
make the budget ample and sufficient. For in- 
stance, if the budget, without this item totaled 
$7,850, such an item and for an amount of $150 
may be added, making a complete total of $8,000. 



1^0 



PART IV 

THE PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS 
OF THE SUPERVISOR 



The remaining few pages contain the conclu- 
sions drawn from a digest of the written and spoken 
opinions of many school superintendents, super- 
visors and principals upon the subject of the pro- 
fessional conduct of the supervisor or ^^his pro- 
fessional relations^'. 

The Supervisor and Others in the System 

As a director of instruction, the supervisor is 
responsible to the children for their instruction. 
Under his direction this yields them profit or 
loss; they receive good or poor instruction; they 
are allowed to develop good or bad habits; each 
day for them is one of gainful growth, or the in- 
valuable days of youth are wasted and gone. 

It is the duty of the supervisor to determine 
the influence of his assistant teachers upon the 
child, and to do whatever lies within his power 
to do, for the good of the child. If unsatisfactory 
conditions are the result of inefficient supervision, 
the supervisor should be the first to realize and 
correct such shortcomings. If, in his opinion, the 
fault be with the teacher, then must he be strong 
to do that which will best better the conditions. 



1^2 Supervision of the 

The right thing to do, however, must be deter- 
mined carefully and tactfully, and never should 
it be determined until the teacher has been given 
every opportunity for explanation. A patient and 
sympathetic discussion with the teacher may bring 
out the fact that he is laboring under an unusual 
strain at home with sickness in the family and 
added work and cares. Perhaps within the school- 
room will be found the main source of trouble: 
an unusually hard class to govern, as shown by 
the experiences of other teachers, or the presence 
in the class of several children below normal. 
Many more problems there might be that influ- 
ence the work of the teacher and call for the aid 
and encouragement of the supervisor before he 
will be justified in recommending the transfer or 
removal of the teacher. Yet, if after careful con- 
sideration, the judgment is that the teacher 
should be removed from a particular connection, 
it becomes the duty of the supervisor to say the 
word unhesitatingly so that the children may 
have, as soon as possible, the guidance of a more 
perfect hand. 

The supervisor should understand the policy 
of the superintendent and should be able to make 
this policy the background for his own organiza- 
tion and live up to it. He should supply the con- 
necting link between the superintendent and those 
teachers with whom the supervisor is directly 



special Subjects 153 

associated in his work. He should be able to fur- 
nish facts as to the relative strength of the teachers, 
gained by his hearing, judging, suggesting, en- 
couraging, praising, correcting and stimulating 
with patience and openminded frankness. 

If the supervisor's opinion is asked for by the 
superintendent, he should be frank and unbiased 
by personal feeling, and ready to state his well- 
founded convictions and stand behind them. He 
should be able to inform the superintendent as to 
which of his (the supervisor's) teachers are weak 
or strong, are unhappy in their work, or for some 
other reason need transferring, and which of the 
teachers have ability to accept positions of more 
responsibility. In discharging his duty as an 
informant to the superintendent, the supervisor 
cannot afford to use spying methods. His close 
contact with the daily work of the teachers, his 
conferences with them, his interest in their per- 
sonal and professional ambitions should be of 
such a quality and tempered by such leadership, 
as to make him cognizant of their efficiency as 
teachers — Their power to instruct and discipline, 
their attitude towards the school problems in 
general and their own problems in particular 
while still maintaining the respect and happy 
cooperation of the teachers. 

The supervisor should have confidence in the 
superintendent. If for no other reason, the fact 



1S4 Supervision of the 

alone that the superintendent fills a more re- 
sponsible office and fills it because he is a man, 
broader in experience and more competent, should 
cause the supervisor to receive willingly and with 
deference, his superior's suggestions, criticisms 
and judgment. And if it happens, as is sometimes 
the case, that the opinions of the superintendent 
are not in accord with his own, then the super- 
visor should accept the superintendent's judg- 
ment, or, after due reflection, should as willingly, 
frankly and deferently approach him for a better 
understanding, rather than let a difference of 
opinion, sow the seed of discontent. 

Last, but not necessarily least, the supervisor 
should expect to find in the superintendent a 
good guide for his professional work and study. 

There must be mutual understanding and co- 
operation between the different school principals 
and the supervisor, if the work is to progress 
satisfactorily and pleasantly. Neither can ignore 
the other, nor expect to perform his best service, 
if he does not understand the problems, policies 
and aims of the other in so far as they affect the 
work. The supervisor should see the principal 
frequently, informing him of his plans, encourag- 
ing him to visit the class and building up his 
interest in the work where it does not exist to a 
noticeable degree. 



special Subjects 155 

The special teachers should know the relation 
between the policy of the superintendent and that 
of the supervisor, and any difference of opinion 
between a teacher and the supervisor over the 
relation of the plan of this teacher to the policy 
of the other two, should be harmonized through 
private consultations until a complete under- 
standing exists. 

The relation of the supervisor to the teachers 
under him is much the same as the relation of 
the superintendent to the supervisor. To them 
he should be a guide and inspiration, always 
fairminded and frank, approachable and sympa- 
thetic, ready and strong to counsel and advise 
when necessary. If professional study and an 
understanding of human nature is necessary for 
him, so is it for them. The supervisor should help 
them to realize this, to keep them from focusing 
their entire attention upon their own work to the 
exclusion of interest in other fields of school life 
and the larger world in which they live. 

One of the first aims of the supervisor should 
be to establish relations with his assistants, based 
upon an understanding that they are mutually 
responsible to the child and that they must co- 
operate continually in an effort to contribute to 
the best of their ability to the education and de- 
velopment of the child. The teachers must see 
that the main duties of the supervisor consist of 



156 Supervision of the 

organizing and directing the teaching and training 
the teachers under his charge, to be skillful and 
efficient instructors, while their chief responsibility 
is that of attaining efficiency in teaching and 
using their best abiUty for the advancement of 
the education of the children. 

In speaking of the relations between the 
supervisor and the teacher, Miss Sarah Arnold 
has said: ^^The teacher judges her supervisor to 
be her friend. Not as an inspector, a judge, a 
police officer could he see her best work. It is 
only in the sun of confidence that our best effort 
flowers. No free and confident work can be done 
in the atmosphere of fear. The weaker, the more 
fearful the teacher, the poorer will her work ap- 
pear under criticism. Therefore, I fancy the wise 
supervisor, in making his visits, withholds cri- 
ticisms until his teachers knovv^ and trust him, 
gives every opportunity for the exhibition of the 
best and strongest work, speaks the word of ap- 
proval when it is deserved, and, by his sympa- 
thetic comment assures the teacher of his co- 
operation with her in her work'\ 

In connection with the principles and methods 
of instruction, it is doubtful if leadership should 
take the form of dictatorship of details. Leader- 
ship should point out the goal and show the path 
that leads to it. General principles can be given 
and a guiding hand used to help the teacher make 



special Subjects 157 

the most of his effort to solve the problems of 
responsibility that should be his. Only through 
accepting and solving problems can he develop 
justifiable self-confidence with resulting inde- 
pendence of thought and action. Wise leadership 
on the part of the supervisor will cause him to 
sagaciously choose problems requiring responsi- 
bility and constructive thinking which can be 
released to his teachers for solution and which 
should be willingly accepted by them. 

The supervisor must be prepared to be es- 
pecially patient with the regular or grade teachers 
who are also required to teach special subjects. 
These teachers may be poorly trained for handling 
such subjects and need special help and guidance. 
Supervisors must be mindful of the fact that their 
subject is not the only one in the system and is 
perhaps not the most important one either. Think 
of the state of mind of the regular teacher who 
has to teach two or more special subjects under 
supervisors, each thinking and trying to make 
others think that his subject is ^Hhe only one'' 
and who, because of their power to rate teachers 
and hand such reports to the superintendent, 
literally compel these teachers to give their sub- 
jects exaggerated attention, to tlio dotrimont of 
regular subjec^ts loss carefully supoi'visod. 



1S8 Supervision of the 

The Supervisor and Those Not in the 
System 

The very nature of the supervisor's position 
is such as to make him the best authority in the 
community concerning the Avork in his particular 
department. For that reason he is the one from 
whom the people will get the best enlightenment 
regarding this work. He should be able, if asked, 
to discuss at parents' meetings, men's clubs, 
chambers of commerce, etc., the nature of the 
work of his department, its value to the com- 
munity, the aims and hopes he has for adding to 
its value and its needs. 

The Supervisor and ^^ Himself'' 

Executive ability of a high degree is essential 
to the success of the work of a supervisor. Accord- 
ing to James P. Haney, ^^The good executive is 
one who can hold many details in mind, reduce 
them to order and attend to them with precision 
and dispatch. He must be possessed of strength 
and energy, must have a love for work, order and 
system in work. He must have a policy planned, 
shaped and ever kept before his mental eye. 
The good executive must possess initiative, a 
knowledge of the way to start things and a readi- 
ness to use such knowledge. He must be re- 
sourceful, quick to see different roads for attain- 
ing the same end, versatile in devising new methods 
when old ones prove inadequate". 



special Subjects 159 

The supervisor must have definite aims for 
his work, and must formulate a policy and a 
plan of procedure harmonizing with his policy 
and aims before he can be said to have executive 
abihty. He may decide upon his policy, and 
plan of action when alone and undisturbed, but 
he must be ever mindful of it so that, in the dis- 
charge of his duties oftentimes under stressed 
conditions, the policy may guide him to a rational 
conduct of his supervisory activities. 

By carefully observing the methods and prac- 
tices of executives in business and public life, 
valuable suggestions for the molding of his own 
executive ability will be gained. 

Although the supervisor should be as Avell 
versed in his different special subjects as is pos- 
sible, he cannot know each of a number of special 
subjects as well as a teacher of one subject should 
know his own. Because of this, he should be 
ready and willing to realize and acknowledge 
good work when he sees it and gain what good he 
can from contact with it, for the ultimate good of 
others with whom he is associated in his daily 
tasks. 

The professional work of the supervisor can- 
not be Hmited to his particular field. He must 
know of the relations between all departments 
of the school system in which he is at work. He 
must aim to have a broad view of the purpose of 



160 Supervision of the 

education in its largest sense. He should know 
the social and industrial problems of his com- 
munity and the relation of his work to these 
problems. The supervisor of industrial arts, for 
example, should see a difference in the needs of 
the children of a majority of the working men as 
compared to the needs of those whose parents 
are financially well-to-do. 

Only by developing in himself a breadth of 
view obtained through study and thought, and 
contact with men and things, can he obtain a 
power of leadership with ability to inculcate in 
his associate teachers a clear vision and ideas of 
a large purpose. 

Superintendent F. M. Hunter once said: ^^The 
supervisor's view of the responsibility of the 
modern-day school system must be exceedingly 
broad. He must get away from the viewpoint 
of the mere specialist who seeks to develop in 
the pupils nothing but a mere proficiency in his 
particular subject''. 

By acquiring a knowledge of human nature 
will the supervisor be helped to succeed; by being 
able to put himself in another's place; by re- 
membering that his associates are human and 
that ^'children are children". Again quoting 
Sarah Louise Arnold, who wrote: ^^ Behind the 
teacher, the man, the woman; behind the pupil, 
the boy, the girl. Through all the current of 



special Subjects 161 

school tasks, of grades, of classes, of graduations 
— ^human life''. 



^ 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



Arnold, S. L., Duties and Privileges of a Supervisor. Proc. N. E. A. 
1898. 

Arnold, School and Class Management. 

Bagley, W. C, Class Room Management. 

Bailej^, H. T., Supervisor's Chief Business. Applied Arts Book, 
Vol. 2, No. 2. 

Bobbitt, John Franklin, Curriculum. (1918) 

Boston Elementary Schools. A Bulletin. 

Bush, Wisconsin State Department Public Instruction Bulletin. 

Crawshaw, F. D., Manual Arts for Vocational Ends. 

Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration. 

Cubberley, E. P., State and County Educational Reorganization. 

DeVoss & Kelley, Educational Tests and Measurements. (1917) 

Dooley, Wilham Henry, Principles and Methods of Industrial Edu- 
cation. (1919) 

Dutton & Snedden, Educational Administration. 

Elliott, E. C, New York City Inquiry Report, Vol. 2. 

Greene, L. S., School Shop Installation and Maintenance. 

Griffith, Ira Samuel, Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts. (1920) 

Hall-Quest, A. L., Supervised Study. 

Haney, J. P., Supervision of Manual Arts. Year Book of Council 
of Supervisors of Manual Arts. (1903) 

Hollister, H. A., High School and Class Management. (1915) 

James, W., Talks to Teachers. 

McMurry, F. M.. Elementary School Standards. (1913) 

McMurry, C. A., Handbook of Practice for Teachers. (1914) 

McMurry, C. A., Principles Underlying the Making of School Cur- 
ricula — Teachers' College Record, Sept. 1915. 

N. E. A. Reports, Articles on Supervision. 

Nutt, H. W., The Supervision of Instruction. 

Rugg, H. O., Statistical Methods Applied to Education. (1917) 

Starch, D., Educational Measurements. (1916) 

Strayer & Thorndike, Educational Administration. (1913) 

Strayer, G. D. and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach. (1917) 

Thorndike, E. L., Principles of Teaching. (1906) 

Whitney, Bulletin on Industrial Education in the Altoona Pa. 
Schools. 

Yule, G. U., Theory of Statistics. (1911) 



